Detection of several common adulterants in raw milk by MID-infrared spectroscopy and one-class and multi-class multivariate strategies

Abstract

A sequential strategy was proposed to detect adulterants in milk using a mid-infrared spectroscopy and soft independent modelling of class analogy technique. Models were set with low target levels of adulterations including formaldehyde (0.074g.L), hydrogen peroxide (21.0g.L), bicarbonate (4.0g.L), carbonate (4.0g.L), chloride (5.0g.L), citrate (6.5g.L), hydroxide (4.0g.L), hypochlorite (0.2g.L), starch (5.0g.L), sucrose (5.4g.L) and water (150g.L). In the first step, a one-class model was developed with unadulterated samples, providing 93.1% sensitivity. Four poorly assigned adulterants were discarded for the following step (multi-class modelling). Then, in the second step, a multi-class model, which considered unadulterated and formaldehyde-, hydrogen peroxide-, citrate-, hydroxide- and starch-adulterated samples was implemented, providing 82% correct classifications, 17% inconclusive classifications and 1% misclassifications. The proposed strategy was considered efficient as a screening approach since it would reduce the number of samples subjected to confirmatory analysis, time, costs and errors.

Economically Motivated Food Fraud and Adulteration in Brazil: Incidents and Alternatives to Minimize Occurrence

“…Spectroscopic techniques are very promising tools to detect and/or quantify adulteration in food because they are rapid, nondestructive, effective, reliable, and do not use chemical reagents (Kamal & Karoui, ). The NIRS methodology was successfully applied to identify food fraud and adulteration in the following food production chains: milk and dairy products (Carvalho et al., ; Gondim, Junqueira, Souza, Ruisánchez, & Callao, ; Kamal & Karoui, ; Rodrigues et al., ), honey and botanical origin studies (Siddiqui, Musharraf, Choudhary, & Rahman, ), coffee (Reis, Franca, & Oliveira, ), bovine meat (Nunes et al., ), and extra virgin flaxseed oil (Souza, Santana, Gontijo, Mazivila, & Borges, ). Infrared spectroscopy combined with chemometrics has been used as a powerful tool for determining adulterants in milk, contributing to product quality assurance and serving as a method for cross‐checking results (Nascimento, Santos, Pereira‐Filho, & Rocha, ).…”

Assessment of proteolysis in ultra‐high temperature milk using attenuated total reflectance–Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy

“…; Gondim et al . ). This technique can be used non‐destructively and rapidly to obtain biochemical fingerprints that provide information about molecular structure and composition of food (Sivakesava and Irudayaraj ; Cebi et al .…”

“…However, these techniques are laborious and time-consuming. Attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) is an upcoming rapid analytical tool being employed for assessing the quality of milk with special reference to adulteration (Upadhyay et al 2016;Gondim et al 2017). This technique can be used non-destructively and rapidly to obtain biochemical fingerprints that provide information about molecular structure and composition of food (Sivakesava and Irudayaraj 2001;Cebi et al 2017).…”

Development and application of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy for detection of milk adulteration in practice

“…Most recently, adulteration with a broad group of compounds has been addressed by Gondim et al (2017). Eleven potential adulterants including formaldehyde, hydrogen peroxide, bicarbonate, carbonate, chloride, citrate, hydroxide, hypochlorite, starch, sucrose and water were examined by MIR/ATR.…”