Biosensors and nanobiosensors for rapid detection of autoimmune diseases: a review

Abstract

This review (with 77 refs.) describes the progress that has been made in biosensors for the detection of autoimmune diseases, mainly via detection of autoantibodies. In addition, specific proteins, cytokines and ions have also been introduced as promising diagnostic biomarkers. Following an introduction into the various kinds of autoimmune diseases, we first discuss the state of the art in respective electrochemical biosensors and nanobiosensors (with subsections on amperometric, impedimetric, voltammetric and photoelectrochemical methods). The next large chapter covers optical methods (with subsections on electrochemiluminescence, fluorescence and surface plasmon resonance). We then make a critical comparison between commercially available kits used for detection of autoimmune diseases with the established biosensors. Several Tables are also presented that give an overview on the wealth of methods and nanomaterials. Finally, in the conclusion part, we summarize the current status, addresse present issues, and give an outlook on potential future opportunities.

Peptide-based simple detection of SARS-CoV-2 with electrochemical readout

“…The SARS-CoV-2 has also been detected electrochemically by immunosensors [ 14 , [21] , [22] , [23] , [24] , [25] , [26] , [27] , [28] , [29] , [30] , [31] , [32] ] and genosensors [ [33] , [34] , [35] , [36] ]. Furthermore, outstanding features of biosensors have been exploited in the detection of other viruses [ 37 , 38 ], pathogens [ 39 ], other infections [ 18 ], cancer biomarkers [ [40] , [41] , [42] ] and other diseases-related biomarkers [ 43 ] demonstrating to be promising analytical tools that can help to solve current diagnosis limitations [ 44 ].…”

Microfluidics-Integrated Sensors toward Rapid Detection of Single Nucleotide Variations

“…Microfluidic strategies have gained popularity for a wide range of applications from chemical processes to biomedicine and biosensing. A current trend of biosensor development is to incorporate the detectors with microfluidics to produce portable diagnostic devices . Multiple functions can be compactly integrated in a single device.…”

SARS-CoV-2 electrochemical immunosensor based on the spike-ACE2 complex

“…Chronoamperometry can be specific by adequately selecting the working potential and enjoys high sensitivity and simplicity [[ 13 , 14 ]; therefore, it is the preferred technique to follow electrochemical reactions once the electrochemical process has been well-characterized. Outstanding features of biosensors have been used in the detection of bacterial pathogens [ 15 ], infections [ 16 ], cancer biomarkers [[ 15 , 16 ]], autoimmune diseases [ 19 ] and virus identification [[ 18 , 19 ]], including SARS-CoV-2 immunosensors [[ [22] , [23] , [24] , [25] , [26] , [27] , [28] , [29] , [30] , [31] , [32] , [33] , [34] ]], and genosensors [[ [35] , [36] , [37] , [38] ]], being up-and-coming detection tools that promise to solve diagnosis limitations in this and coming pandemics [ 39 ].…”