Tremendous efforts are being made to develop electrode materials, electrolytes, and separators for energy storage devices to meet the needs of emerging technologies such as electric vehicles, decarbonized electricity, and electrochemical energy storage. However, the sustainability concerns of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and next-generation rechargeable batteries have received little attention. Recycling plays an important role in the overall sustainability of future batteries and is affected by battery attributes including environmental hazards and the value of their constituent resources. Therefore, recycling should be considered when developing battery systems. Herein, we provide a systematic overview of rechargeable battery sustainability. With a particular focus on electric vehicles, we analyze the market competitiveness of batteries in terms of economy, environment, and policy. Considering the large volumes of batteries soon to be retired, we comprehensively evaluate battery utilization and recycling from the perspectives of economic feasibility, environmental impact, technology, and safety. Battery sustainability is discussed with respect to life-cycle assessment and analyzed from the perspectives of strategic resources and economic demand. Finally, we propose a 4H strategy for battery recycling with the aims of high efficiency, high economic return, high environmental benefit, and high safety. New challenges and future prospects for battery sustainability are also highlighted.

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Electrochemical energy storage systems play an important role in diverse applications, such as electrified transportation and integration of renewable energy with the electrical grid. To facilitate model-based management for extracting full system potentials, proper mathematical models are imperative. Due to extra degrees of freedom brought by differentiation derivatives, fractional-order models may be able to better describe the dynamic behaviors of electrochemical systems. This paper provides a critical overview of fractional-order techniques for managing lithium-ion batteries, lead-acid batteries, and supercapacitors. Starting with the basic concepts and technical tools from fractional-order calculus, the modeling principles for these energy systems are presented by identifying disperse dynamic processes and using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Available battery/supercapacitor models are comprehensively reviewed, and the advantages of fractional types are discussed. Two case studies demonstrate the accuracy and computational efficiency of fractional-order models. These models offer 15-30% higher accuracy than their integer-order analogues, but have reasonable complexity. Consequently, fractional-order models can be good candidates for the development of advanced battery/supercapacitor management systems. Finally, the main technical challenges facing electrochemical energy storage system modeling, state estimation, and control in the fractional-order domain, as well as future research directions, are highlighted.

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