Sustainable Recycling Technology for Li-Ion Batteries and Beyond: Challenges and Future Prospects

Abstract

Tremendous efforts are being made to develop electrode materials, electrolytes, and separators for energy storage devices to meet the needs of emerging technologies such as electric vehicles, decarbonized electricity, and electrochemical energy storage. However, the sustainability concerns of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and next-generation rechargeable batteries have received little attention. Recycling plays an important role in the overall sustainability of future batteries and is affected by battery attributes including environmental hazards and the value of their constituent resources. Therefore, recycling should be considered when developing battery systems. Herein, we provide a systematic overview of rechargeable battery sustainability. With a particular focus on electric vehicles, we analyze the market competitiveness of batteries in terms of economy, environment, and policy. Considering the large volumes of batteries soon to be retired, we comprehensively evaluate battery utilization and recycling from the perspectives of economic feasibility, environmental impact, technology, and safety. Battery sustainability is discussed with respect to life-cycle assessment and analyzed from the perspectives of strategic resources and economic demand. Finally, we propose a 4H strategy for battery recycling with the aims of high efficiency, high economic return, high environmental benefit, and high safety. New challenges and future prospects for battery sustainability are also highlighted.

Tackling xEV Battery Chemistry in View of Raw Material Supply Shortfalls

“…Pyrometallurgical processes are the most mature battery recycling technology, even if this process was not intended for use in recycling of spent LIBs during their initial design (Baltac and Slater, 2019;Fan et al, 2020). The simple operation and the ability to recycle different battery chemistries simultaneously are one of the main advantages of this recycling scheme (Baltac and Slater, 2019;Fan et al, 2020).…”

“…Pyrometallurgical processes are the most mature battery recycling technology, even if this process was not intended for use in recycling of spent LIBs during their initial design (Baltac and Slater, 2019;Fan et al, 2020). The simple operation and the ability to recycle different battery chemistries simultaneously are one of the main advantages of this recycling scheme (Baltac and Slater, 2019;Fan et al, 2020). However, according to Dunn et al using pyrometallurgy recycling for LMO, LFP and NMC batteries does not reduce green house gases, since the emissions from primary production of their virgin materials are lower (Joulié et al, 2014).…”

“…Output of the pyrometallurgical process are a metallic alloy fraction, slag and gases (Harper et al, 2019). High temperature facilitates oxidation and reduction reactions resulting in a mixed metal alloy containing copper, cobalt, nickel and iron (Gaines, 2018;Baltac and Slater, 2019;Harper et al, 2019;Fan et al, 2020;Mossali et al, 2020). The alloy can be separated through hydrometallurgical processes (Harper et al, 2019).…”

“…However, actual research results do not show that this option would be available in widespread commercial applications before 2030. It has to be additionally emphasized that tremendous production capacities (Gigafactories) (Kurland, 2019;Fan et al, 2020) and automotive V-Model life cycle (Kumar et al, 2009; will prevent any fast switch to other battery cell technologies. Hence, it is established that Li-ion technology will be prominent in the near future, however its chemistry and materials are uncertain.…”

Big-Data-Based Power Battery Recycling for New Energy Vehicles: Information Sharing Platform and Intelligent Transportation Optimization

“…According to the national standard GB12268-2012 list of dangerous goods, lithium-ion batteries belong to the ninth category of hazardous products. Spent Li batteries contain heavy metal elements, such as Ni and Co, which were classified as carcinogenic and mutagenic materials, as well as toxic organic electrolytes, which adversely affect human health and the environment [21]. Transport vehicles with corresponding categories of dangerous goods were required [22].…”