The analysis of scientific literature shows that the study of adrenal morphology in humans and animals is an urgent problem of biology and medicine from ancient times to the present day. In the historical aspect, we can distinguish three stages of studying the adrenal gland that differ in the directions of research. The first stage corresponds to the research of scientists of the XVI–XVIII centuries (Bartolomeo Eustachio, Andreas Vesalius, Gabriele Folloppio, Girolamo Fabrici, Andriaan Spieghel, Johann Vesling, Giulia Casseria, Caspar Bauhin, Johann Grafenberg, Caspar Bartholin, Thomas Bartholin, Giulio Casserio, Antonio Molinetti, Jean Riolan, Thomas Wharton, Giovanni Lancisi, Jakob Winslow, Antony Valsalva, Albrecht Haller, Johann Meckel, Jean Senac, Armand Cassan). Their works is devoted to the study of topography, macroscopic structure and function of the adrenal gland. Studies of morphological scientists of the second stage (late XVIII – mid XX century) correspond to the study of the structure of the adrenal gland at the microscopic level. Scientists like Albert Kelliker, Johann Ecker, Thomas Addison, Gabriel Colin, Alfred Kohn and Jay Arnold used histological and histochemical research methods. Edward Schafer, George Oliver, Vladislav Szymonowicz, John Abel, Jokiti Takmine, Welter Cannon, Edward Kendall to the study of the features of adrenal hormone secretion. Scientific works of the mid-twentieth and early twenty-first centuries can be combined in the third stage of research on the morphology of the adrenal gland. It is devoted to solving issues related to the formation of the adrenal gland in the process of filogenesis and ontogenesis, the features of the structure and function of the organ in normal and pathological conditions. A significant contribution to the study of the morphology of the adrenal gland of animals at the third stage was made by such scientists as Ziyade A. M., Dardykina O. N., Harina V. V., Atagimov M. Z., Torguj P. M., Antipin I. A., Shishkin A. P., Volkova M. V., Shevchenko L. F., Sidorova O. G., Vovchenko M. B., Salekh M. M., Ovcharenko N. D., Zaika S. V., Samatova I. M., Gorbacheva E. S., Pronin V. V., Kuznecov A. V., Pashinin N. S., Strel’nikova I. G., Barvenko A. D., Fedotov D. N., Izatulin A. V., Kvarackheliya A. G., Silkina A. V., Muhametov A. I. Among the studies of morphologists of the third period, the method of electron microscopy prevails.
Aim. To determine the difference in immune responses of the harderian gland in clinically healthy chickens and the ones with infectious bronchitis based on the content, localization and morphometric estimation of the surface markers of Т- and В-lymphocytes and to determine the differentiation index as an indicator of assessing body defenses. Methods. Histological, immunohistochemical, optical, morphometric and statistical. Results. The histological study of the harderian gland of chickens with infectious bronchitis determined the swelling and proliferation of the connective tissue as well as infiltration of secretory lobules by lymphoid cells. It was found that the immunity of chickens with infectious bronchitis, in which the harderian gland plays a relevant role, depends considerably on the differentiation index of immunocompetent cells. There was a reliable 1.77- and 1.36-fold decrease in this indicator for 40- and 90-day-old chickens, respectively, in case of nephroso-nephritic form of infectious bronchitis which demonstrated a weaker function of the defense cells of this organ. According to the cytomorphometric analysis, the number of cells, expressing CD4+, CD8+, CD20+, CD45RA+ markers in the harderian gland of sick 20-, 40-, and 90-day-old chickens with respiratory and nephroso-nephritic forms of infectious bronchitis was reliably (P < 0.05) increasing compared to the clinically healthy chickens. For instance, the number of mature В-lymphocytes increased in sick 20-day-old chickens – 2.44 times, 40-day-old chickens – 1.88 times, and 90-day-old ones – 2.62 times compared to clinically healthy chickens. Conclusions. The data were obtained about the changes in quantitative and qualitative composition of lymphocytes with surface markers CD4+, CD8+, CD20+, CD45RA+ in the harderian gland of chickens with infectious bronchitis. Our results will supplement current knowledge about the feasibility of immunohistochemical methods in the diagnostics of avian infectious bronchitis.
The article presents the data of pathomorphology of chicken organs for infectious bronchitis. The authors found that the lesions of the organs for infectious bronchitis of chickens are systemic in nature and manifests itself depending on the age of the bird and the form of the disease: in the respiratory form, the lungs are most affected in chickens of 20-day age; in the nephroso-nephritis formkidneys at 40, 90-day age; in the reproductive formovaries and ovaries at 285-day age. In this case, the respiratory form of infectious bronchitis in the lungs of chickens was observed hyperemia and edema of stroma, in pnevmocapillar and around the vessel contains a transudate. A significant number of pneumocapillars filled desquamated epithelium and lymphocytes. Some parts of the lung tissue and the tissue around the vessels are impregnated with transudate. In the lumen of parabronchus the presence of desquamated epithelium, lymphocytes, and muco-serous exudate noted. There were large areas of atelectasis, which bordered on areas of compensatory emphysema. The disease was accompanied by catarrhalhemorrhagic, croup inflammation of the bronchus. In many cases, hyperemia and hemorrhages on the mucous membrane of the trachea, often catarrhal bronchitis, were observed. For nephroso-nephritis forms of infectious bronchitis in the kidneys of chickens for infectious bronchitis, hyperemia and hemorrhages in the stroma, granular dystrophy, necrosis and desquamation of tubular epithelial cells were recorded, in the lumen of which the accumulation of protein mass was detected, as well as blood filling of the capillary plexus of the vascular glomerulus. According to the reproductive form of infectious bronchitis in the oviduct, the presence of cysts was noted, especially in the anterior part of it. The posterior part of the oviduct was predominantly atrophied. The ovary was significantly reduced and covered with yellow bodies. In the future, atresia and degenerative changes in the egg follicles occurred.
The article describes the features of the macroscopic and microscopic structure of the liver of mature clinically healthy dogs for the use of anatomical, histological and morphometric methods of research. According to the results of organometallic and cytometric studies, the absolute and relative body mass, the volume of hepatocytes, their nuclei and the nuclear-cytoplasmic ratio were determined. Thus, the absolute weight of the liver in the mature dogs is variable and to a certain extent depends on the blood flow to the organ and is 427.4 ± 21.92 g, the relative weight – 2.69 ± 0.1%. Liver of mature dogs is a compact body of flattened form with sharp lower and lateral edges, with deep cuts, dark red color. The histoarhitectonics of the liver of dogs are constructed with connective tissue and parenchyma. The stroma of the organ is formed by a capsule, on top of which is serous membrane. In the area of the gates of the liver, the connective tissue of the capsule penetrates into the middle of the organ, branching and dividing it into lobules. Then it is formed by the hepatic plates by the intraosseous sinusoid capillaries. Liver plates are specific endpoint of the secretory unit of the liver. It has been found that in the microscopic structure of the liver of the dogs, the interstitial connective tissue is poorly developed, therefore the boundaries between the liver lobules are not sufficient. The liver plates behind the microscopic structure have a radial direction from the center to the periphery. The direction closer to the periphery of the particles is less noticeable, since hepatocytes are located in two rows, between which the sinusoidal space clearly appears. Hepatocytes had an irregular, multifaceted form. Their nuclei, which were mainly in the center of the cell, had little clarity of contours of carriel and well perceived color. During microscopic examination of the liver, it is swollen that hepatocytes of the central and intermediate zones are better perceived by color than the cytoplasm of the cells of the peripheral zone of the liver. According to the analysis of our cytomorphometric studies, hepatocytes of dogs have different sizes, which vary in wide range: from small to large. Whereas the average volume of hepatocytes in mature dogs is 964.72 ± 56.003 μm³; the average volume of their nuclei is 105.13 ± 2.02 microns. The nuclear-cytoplasmic ratio of hepatocytes in dogs of this group is 0.128 ± 0.122.
The dead animals have a pathomorphological picture with a brightly expressed hemorrhagic diathesis, in many organs there is venous stasis. Blood does not clot for several hours, and at autopsy of organs (heart, lungs, liver, kidneys) it is poured in significant amounts into the body cavity. Macroscopically, the most significant changes are observed in the respiratory system. The lungs are blood-filled, intensely swollen and unevenly colored, have a grayish-pink color with single or multiple spotted and spotted hemorrhages under the pleura. Red or almost colorless liquid flows down from the incision surface, foamy exudate is released from the bronchi when pressed on. There are no patterns in the localization of pathomorphological changes in any part of the lungs (apical, cardiac, diaphragmatic): all parts are damaged at once, or mainly in one or another part. The walls of the trachea, nasal cavities, to a lesser extent the larynx are distinctly hemorrhagic. Their red color is more often caused by venous hyperemia. The lumen of the trachea and larynx is filled with red or colorless foamy fluid. Changes in the liver are constant, but not always the same type and are due to the degree of its blood supply, which causes a change in color, amount and consistency. In the first hours after the death of the animal, the liver is usually completely blood-filled, enlarged, easily torn, has a reddish-brown color with a yellowish tinge in the central parts of the lobes. The capillary network of the body looks like red streaks and dots of irregular shape. Spotted hemorrhages are sometimes observed under the capsule of the organ. The gallbladder contains some bile, its mucous is rough, a bit exfoliated. The spleen is increased in size by 1.5–3 times, swollen, dark cherry in color with a typical purple tinge. The kidneys are completely blood-filled, reddish-brown and increased in several times. The thymus is slightly reddened, often with multiple spotted or spotted hemorrhages in the chest. Lymph nodes are pulpy, grayish-pink, rarely red, not significantly changed in size. The heart (especially its right half) is filled with a large amount of black and red blood, increased in size , the walls of the ventricles are stretched, thin, have flabby consistency. Multiple spotted and spotted hemorrhages under the epicardium and endocardium are common. Changes in the gastrointestinal tract characterize catarrhal (rarely catarrhal-hemorrhagic) inflammation, sometimes hemorrhage in the duodenum and rectum, exfoliation of the gastric mucosa. In the form of hemorrhage, pathological and anatomical changes are found in the uterus and adrenal glands, in the form of congestive hyperemia – in the genitals, goiter, brain.
Heat stress as a result of hyperthermia and dehydration of the body due to natural or artificial environmental factors negatively affects the well-being of birds. Heat stress factor can lead to significant economic losses in poultry farms due to a decrease in egg production, egg fertilization, hatching and viability of young animals, morphological indicators of eggs, an increase in bird mortality during maintenance and transportation, the occurrence of immunosuppression and metabolic disorders. Pathomorphological changes in the internal organs of birds under heat stress are classified as degenerative changes, necrosis, circulatory disorders, changes in tissue fluid, growth disorders, and inflammation. The adrenal gland affects the number of functional and metabolic processes in the body of birds, its hormones ensure its resistance to heat stress. In the current global warming climate, the study of the morphology of the adrenal gland of birds due to the action of a thermal stress factor is an urgent problem of poultry farming, since its solution contributes to the scientific justification of technologies for growing, using and treating birds. The aim of the study was to identify morphological changes in the adrenal gland of white leghorn chickens aged 3 months under heat stress. Anatomical, morphometric, microscopic and statistical research methods were used in the course of the study. It was found that the indicators of absolute mass and linear dimensions of the adrenal glands of chickens under heat stress increased relative to such indicators in clinically healthy chickens. Microscopically, circulatory disorders (edema, hyperemia, hemorrhages, congestion, thrombosis) were recorded in the adrenal glands of chickens, which on the 4th day of exposure to the heat stress factor were accompanied by activation of regenerative processes (an increase in the number of fibroblasts under the capsule) and secretory activity of endocrinocytes (an increase in the size of interrenal and suprarenal cells). Intense and prolonged stress of the adrenal glands of chickens caused by heat stress led to the withdrawal of their plastic and energy resources, and as a result caused the development of adrenal deficiency on Day 8, which was observed destructive and dystrophic changes in the interrenal and supraranal cells. The obtained data can be used to develop morphofunctional diagnostic and prognostic criteria for the state of both the adrenal glands and the avian organ as a whole under heat stress. In the future of further research-to study the features of the content and localization of nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids in the adrenal glands of chickens under heat stress.
Ostriches tolerate extreme environmental conditions well. The reserve of their adaptive abilities is very high. These birds retain heat well in cold weather, covering their large legs with their large feathers, as well as in the heat, fluttering them to create coolness. As the experience of keeping ostriches on farms in Europe and Ukraine shows, they can withstand temperature to -15 °C, and in the African deserts- temperatures up to +56 °C. Therefore, given the climatic conditions in Ukraine, this branch of poultry, in fact, has the right to be realized and profitable. Due to the growth and development of ostrich farms in Ukraine and the significant lack of literature about the diseases of these birds, which are kept in private farms, zoos, the result of this study will be useful to get a general idea of the digestive system of ostriches and possible pathology, which is related to anatomical features of the digestive system of these birds. The ostrich autopsy was performed in the section hall of the Department of Anatomy and Histology of Polissya National University. Morphological data were analyzed and discussed to establish the etiology of the disease, postmortem diagnosis and cause of the animal’s death. Analyzing the results, it can be argued that the animal died as a result of hypothermia (as much of its body was deprived of feathers) and feeding it large, hard pieces of food, including fodder beets. The autopsy revealed a significant overflow of the stomach with feed masses, a large number of stones, leaves, grass and large pieces ofundigested beets, blockage of the pyloric orifice, which led to acute gastric enlargement, resulting in acute venous stasis in the lungs and liver, developed pulmonary and brain edema. The animal death occurred as a result of asphyxia. The results of the research can be used for comparative pathology of diseases of this species of birds. Key words: ostrich, stomach, pyloric orifice, intestine, lungs, liver, kidneys, venous stasis.
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