The development of high-performance, low-cost, and long-lasting electrocatalysts for both hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER) is urgently needed for effective electrochemical water splitting. In the present study, an engineering process was employed to prepare “Lewis base-hungry” amorphous–crystalline nickel borate–nickel sulfide (Ni3(BO3)2–Ni3S2) heterostructures, which exhibited unprecedentedly high electrocatalytic activity toward both OER and HER in alkaline media. The optimal Ni3(BO3)2–Ni3S2/nickel foam (Ni3(BO3)2–Ni3S2/NF) electrode displayed an ultralow overpotential of only −92 and +217 mV to reach the current density of 10 mA cm–2 for HER and OER, respectively. When the Ni3(BO3)2–Ni3S2/NF electrode was used as both the anode and cathode for overall water splitting, a low cell voltage of 1.49 V was needed to achieve the current density of 10 mA cm–2, which was superior to the performance of most noble metal-free electrocatalysts. Results from density functional theory calculations showed that the Lewis base-hungry sites in the heterostructures effectively enhanced the chemisorption of hydrogen and oxygen intermediates, a critical step in HER and OER electrocatalysis. Results from this study highlight the significance of rational design and engineering of heterostructured materials for the development of high-efficiency electrocatalysts.

Purpose This review aimed to provide an overview of current research into the risk factors for Graves' ophthalmopathy (GO). Methods To find information about the risk factors for GO, the research database PubMed was searched and relevant articles were obtained to extract information about risk factors. Results Smoking has been widely accepted as an important risk factor and cigarette smoking cessation has been shown to improve the outcome and decrease the onset of GO. Radioactive iodine on the thyroid may induce hyperthyroidism and increase the occurrence of GO. Selenium deficiency is a risk factor for GO and the supplementation of selenium has been an adjuvant therapy. Decreasing stressful life events (SLE) may help improve GO. Imbalance in intestinal flora is essential to GO, with Yersinia enterocolitica and Escherichia coli both increased in the digestive tract of the individual with GO. In addition, controlling serum cholesterol may help improve GO since adipogenesis is an important pathological change in its pathogenesis. Considering the correlation between Graves' disease and GO, maintaining normal thyroid function hormone level is the first-line therapeutic strategy to prevent progression of GO. An increase in antibodies such as TSHR and IGF-1R is the main predictor of GO. Besides, gender and gene polymorphism are also risk factors towards GO. Conclusions Risk factors for GO arise from five sources: physical and chemical environment, social-psychological environment, biological environment, the human organism, and genetic codes. Risk factors within these categories may interact with each other and their mechanisms in promoting the development of GO are complex. Research into risk factors for GO may promote emerging fields related to GO such as control of autoantibodies and intestinal microbiota.

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