Mechanical wounding not only damages plant tissues, but also provides pathways for pathogen invasion. To understand plant responses to wounding at a genomic level, we have surveyed the transcriptional response of 8,200 genes in Arabidopsis plants. Approximately 8% of these genes were altered by wounding at steady-state mRNA levels. Studies of expression patterns of these genes provide new information on the interactions between wounding and other signals, including pathogen attack, abiotic stress factors, and plant hormones. For example, a number of wound-responsive genes encode proteins involved in pathogen response. These include signaling molecules for the pathogen resistance pathway and enzymes required for cell wall modification and secondary metabolism. Many osmotic stress-and heat shock-regulated genes were highly responsive to wounding. Although a number of genes involved in ethylene, jasmonic acid, and abscisic acid pathways were activated, many in auxin responses were suppressed by wounding. These results further dissected the nature of mechanical wounding as a stress signal and identified new genes that may play a role in wounding and other signal transduction pathways.

SummaryCalcium signalling involves sensor proteins that decode temporal and spatial changes in cellular Ca 2+ concentration. Calcineurin B-like proteins (CBLs) represent a unique family of plant calcium sensors that relay signals by interacting with a family of protein kinases, designated as CBL-interacting protein kinases (CIPKs). In a reverse genetic screen for altered drought tolerance, we identified a loss-of-function allele of CIPK23 as exhibiting a drought-tolerant phenotype. In the cipk23 mutant, reduced transpirational water loss from leaves coincides with enhanced ABA sensitivity of guard cells during opening as well as closing reactions, without noticeable alterations in ABA content in the plant. We identified the calcium sensors CBL1 and CBL9 as CIPK23-interacting proteins that targeted CIPK23 to the plasma membrane in vivo. Expression analysis of the CIPK23, CBL1 and CBL9 genes suggested that they may function together in diverse tissues, including guard cells and root hairs. In addition, expression of the CIPK23 gene was induced by low-potassium conditions, implicating a function of this gene product in potassium nutrition. Indeed, cipk23 mutants displayed severe growth impairment on media with low concentrations of potassium. This phenotype correlates with a reduced efficiency of K + uptake into the roots. In support of the conclusion that CBL1 and CBL9 interact with and synergistically serve as upstream regulators of CIPK23, the cbl1 cbl9 double mutant, but not the cbl1 or cbl9 single mutants, exhibit altered phenotypes for stomatal responses and low-potassium sensitivity. Together with the recent identification of the potassium channel AKT1 as a target of CIPK23, these results imply that plasma membrane-localized CBL1-and CBL9-CIPK23 complexes simultaneously regulate K + transport processes in roots and in stomatal guard cells.

Potassium (K ؉ ) is an essential nutrient for plant growth and development. Plants often adapt to low K ؉ conditions by increasing their K ؉ uptake capability. Recent studies have led to the identification of a calcium signaling pathway that enables plants to act in this capacity. Calcium is linked to two calcineurin B-like calcium sensors (CBLs) and a target kinase (CBL-interacting protein kinase 23 or CIPK23) that, in turn, appears to phosphorylate and activate the potassium channel, Arabidopsis K ؉ transporter 1 (AKT1), responsible for K ؉ uptake in roots. Here, we report evidence that this regulatory mechanism is more elaborate than earlier envisaged. The recently described pathway is part of an extensive network whereby several CBLs interact with multiple CIPKs in the activation of the potassium channel, AKT1. The physical interactions among the CBL, CIPK, and AKT1 components provide a mechanism for specifying the members of the CBL and CIPK families functional in AKT1 regulation. The interaction between the CIPKs and AKT1 was found to involve the kinase domain of the CIPK component and the ankyrin repeat domain of the channel. Furthermore, we identified a 2C-type protein phosphatase that physically interacts and inactivates the AKT1 channel.

Although calcium is a critical component in the signal transduction pathways that lead to stress gene expression in higher plants, little is known about the molecular mechanism underlying calcium function. It is believed that cellular calcium changes are perceived by sensor molecules, including calcium binding proteins. The calcineurin B-like (CBL) protein family represents a unique group of calcium sensors in plants. A member of the family, CBL1, is highly inducible by multiple stress signals, implicating CBL1 in stress response pathways. When the CBL1 protein level was increased in transgenic Arabidopsis plants, it altered the stress response pathways in these plants. Although drought-induced gene expression was enhanced, gene induction by cold was inhibited. In addition, CBL1 -overexpressing plants showed enhanced tolerance to salt and drought but reduced tolerance to freezing. By contrast, cbl1 null mutant plants showed enhanced cold induction and reduced drought induction of stress genes. The mutant plants displayed less tolerance to salt and drought but enhanced tolerance to freezing. These studies suggest that CBL1 functions as a positive regulator of salt and drought responses and a negative regulator of cold response in plants.

). † These authors contributed equally to this work. SummaryCalcium serves as a critical messenger in many adaptation and developmental processes. Cellular calcium signals are detected and transmitted by sensor molecules such as calcium-binding proteins. In plants, the calcineurin B-like protein (CBL) family represents a unique group of calcium sensors and plays a key role in decoding calcium transients by specifically interacting with and regulating a family of protein kinases (CIPKs). We report here that the CBL protein CBL10 functions as a crucial regulator of salt tolerance in Arabidopsis. Cbl10 mutant plants exhibited significant growth defects and showed hypersensitive cell death in leaf tissues under high-salt conditions. Interestingly, the Na + content of the cbl10 mutant, unlike other salt-sensitive mutants identified thus far, was significantly lower than in the wild type under either normal or high-salt conditions, suggesting that CBL10 mediates a novel Ca 2+ -signaling pathway for salt tolerance. Indeed, the CBL10 protein physically interacts with the salt-tolerance factor CIPK24 (SOS2), and the CBL10-CIPK24 (SOS2) complex is associated with the vacuolar compartments that are responsible for salt storage and detoxification in plant cells. These findings suggest that CBL10 and CIPK24 (SOS2) constitute a novel salt-tolerance pathway that regulates the sequestration/compartmentalization of Na + in plant cells. Because CIPK24 (SOS2) also interacts with CBL4 (SOS3) and regulates salt export across the plasma membrane, our study identifies CIPK24 (SOS2) as a multi-functional protein kinase that regulates different aspects of salt tolerance by interacting with distinct CBL calcium sensors.

Nutrient sensing is critical for plant adaptation to the environment. Because of extensive farming and erosion, low content of mineral nutrients such as potassium (K ؉ ) in soils becomes a limiting factor for plant growth. In response to low-K conditions, plants enhance their capability of K ؉ uptake through an unknown signaling mechanism. Here we report the identification of a Ca 2؉ -dependent pathway for low-K response in Arabidopsis. We are not aware of any other example of a molecular pathway for a nutrient response in plants. Earlier genetic analyses revealed three genes encoding two Ca 2؉ sensors (CBL1 and CBL9) and their target protein kinase (CIPK23) to be critical for plant growth on low-K media and for stomatal regulation, indicating that these calcium signaling components participate in the low-K response and turgor regulation. In this study, we show that the protein kinase CIPK23 interacted with, and phosphorylated, a voltage-gated inward K ؉ channel (AKT1) required for K ؉ acquisition in Arabidopsis. In the Xenopus oocyte system, our studies showed that interacting calcium sensors (CBL1 and CBL9) together with target kinase CIPK23, but not either component alone, activated the AKT1 channel in a Ca 2؉ -dependent manner, connecting the Ca 2؉ signal to enhanced K ؉ uptake through activation of a K ؉ channel. Disruption of both CBL1 and CBL9 or CIPK23 gene in Arabidopsis reduced the AKT1 activity in the mutant roots, confirming that the Ca 2؉ -CBL-CIPK pathway functions to orchestrate transporting activities in planta according to external K ؉ availability.calcium signaling ͉ potassium channel ͉ nutrient sensing ͉ potassium uptake ͉ protein kinase P lants and microbes are able to adapt to widely varying environmental conditions, including the availability of inorganic nutrients. The response to K ϩ is especially relevant because it is the major inorganic osmoticum that contributes to turgor pressure and, hence, to cellular growth and development (1, 2). Both plants and fungi maintain internal K ϩ near 100 mM even when extracellular K ϩ varies between 1 M and 100 mM (i.e., over five orders of magnitude in free concentration). A large collection of transporters is required for this homeostatic mechanism (3-6), yet little is known about the mechanism underlying regulation and integration of the transport activities in concert with the extracellular K ϩ levels. Some studies suggest that plants enhance their capability of K ϩ uptake by activating some K ϩ transporters in response to K ϩ -deficient conditions (7-10). A signaling process exists for the plants to ''monitor'' external K ϩ concentration and ''respond'' to the low-K condition by enhancing the capability for K ϩ acquisition. This signaling pathway represents a typical nutrient sensing and response process in plants about which our knowledge is extremely limited. One recent study indicates that low-K status in the soil triggers elevated production of H 2 O 2 that may serve as a signaling molecule to alter the expression of certain genes (11). Becaus...

Plants respond to environmental stress by activating "stress genes." The plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) plays an important role in stress-responsive gene expression. Although Ca 2 ؉ serves as a common second messenger in signaling stress and ABA, little is known about the molecular basis of Ca 2 ؉ action in these pathways. Here, we show that CIPK3 , a Ser/Thr protein kinase that associates with a calcineurin B-like calcium sensor, regulates ABA response during seed germination and ABA-and stress-induced gene expression in Arabidopsis. The expression of the CIPK3 gene itself is responsive to ABA and stress conditions, including cold, high salt, wounding, and drought. Disruption of CIPK3 altered the expression pattern of a number of stress gene markers in response to ABA, cold, and high salt. However, drought-induced gene expression was not altered in the cipk3 mutant plants, suggesting that CIPK3 regulates select pathways in response to abiotic stress and ABA. These results identify CIPK3 as a molecular link between stress-and ABA-induced calcium signal and gene expression in plant cells. Because the cold signaling pathway is largely independent of endogenous ABA production, CIPK3 represents a cross-talk "node" between the ABA-dependent and ABAindependent pathways in stress responses.

Calcium plays a pivotal role in plant responses to several stimuli, including pathogens, abiotic stresses, and hormones. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying calcium functions are poorly understood. It is hypothesized that calcium serves as second messenger and, in many cases, requires intracellular protein sensors to transduce the signal further downstream in the pathways. The calcineurin B-like proteins (CBLs) represent a unique family of calcium sensors in plant cells. Here, we report our analysis of the CBL9 member of this gene family. Expression of CBL9 was inducible by multiple stress signals and abscisic acid (ABA) in young seedlings. When CBL9 gene function was disrupted in Arabidopsis thaliana plants, the responses to ABA were drastically altered. The mutant plants became hypersensitive to ABA in the early developmental stages, including seed germination and post-germination seedling growth. In addition, seed germination in the mutant also showed increased sensitivity to inhibition by osmotic stress conditions produced by high concentrations of salt and mannitol. Further analyses indicated that increased stress sensitivity in the mutant may be a result of both ABA hypersensitivity and increased accumulation of ABA under the stress conditions. The cbl9 mutant plants showed enhanced expression of genes involved in ABA signaling, such as ABA-INSENSITIVE 4 and 5. This study has identified a calcium sensor as a common element in the ABA signaling and stress-induced ABA biosynthesis pathways.