Substantial evidence suggests that inflammatory cytokines, immune cells, and angiogenesis are important for endometriosis. In this study, we investigated the role of the sequential events in the development of endometriosis in a mouse model. Uterine tissue was transplanted into the peritoneum of ovariectomized mice and then supplemented with estrogen or vehicle. On different days after transplantation, cell proliferation, angiogenesis, and infiltrated immune cells in ectopic tissue were examined using immunochemical staining. Many disintegrated blood vessels but no bromodeoxyuridine-positive cells in ectopic tissue were observed in the estrogen-treated group on posttransplantation d 1 and 2. On d 4-7, bromodeoxyuridine-positive cells were detected in the blood vessels of ectopic tissue, indicating that angiogenesis was initiated in this stage. Angiogenesis also occurred in ectopic tissue in the vehicle-treated group. Profound infiltration of neutrophils in ectopic tissue occurred on d 1-4, when the number of neutrophils and levels of macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1alpha and MIP-2 chemokines in peritoneal fluids also reached their peak. Peritoneal macrophage numbers did not change, but secretions of TNFalpha, IL-6, MIP-1alpha, and MIP-2 from macrophages isolated on d 2 were higher than on d 0. In vitro studies showed that peritoneal neutrophils and macrophages secreted vascular endothelial growth factor, which was up-regulated by TNFalpha and IL-6. Our results suggest that neutrophils and macrophages may promote angiogenesis in the early stage of endometriosis and that chemokines and cytokines amplify the angiogenic signal for the growth of endometriotic tissue.

The effect of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) on cardiovascular diseases remains controversial. Studies conducted on postmenopausal women indicate that oral HRT increases risk factors that may counteract the atheroprotective effect of estrogen. However, the effects of estrogen on atherosclerosis have been examined using subcutaneous estrogen in most animal studies, which points to the need for evaluating the effect of oral estrogen. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have emerged as critical factors in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. This study examined the effect of long-term oral estrogen treatment on aortic oxidative stress and atherosclerosis in female apoE(-/-) mice to mimic HRT in humans. Ovariectomized apoE(-/-) mice were given 6 microg/day of oral 17beta-estradiol (E(2)) or control vehicle for 12 weeks. Estrogen treatment reduced atherosclerotic lesions by 38% (E(2): 0.20 +/- 0.01 mm(2)/section; control vehicle: 0.32 +/- 0.02 mm(2)/section) and intima by 32% (E(2): 0.44 +/- 0.02 mm(2)/section; control vehicle: 0.65 +/- 0.04 mm(2)/section) in the aortic root. Serum levels of total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol were significantly decreased after estrogen treatment. Aortic superoxide anion levels and the expression of NAD(P)H oxidase subunit p22(phox) markedly decreased, and two ROS scavenging enzymes, Cu/ZnSOD and MnSOD, were upregulated after estrogen treatment. Estrogen at physiological concentration inhibited tumor necrosis factor-alpha-stimulated NAD(P)H oxidase activity in both cultured smooth muscle cells and peritoneal macrophages. These results showed that long-term oral estrogen treatment reduces ROS levels and atherosclerosis progression in apoE(-/-) mice. Oral estrogen alters ROS-generating and -scavenging enzyme expression, suggesting that anti-oxidative actions in the vessel wall contribute to atheroprotective effects of estrogen.

Chitosan-poly(acrylic acid) (CS-PAA) nanoparticles, to be used as ophthalmic drug carrier, were successfully prepared using template polymerization of acrylic acid (AA) in a chitosan solution. When the polymerization was done at 70 degrees C for 45 min with a CS/AA weight ratio of 1:1, the surface structure of the prepared nanoparticles was most stable with the smallest mean diameter (92.0 +/- 7.5 nm) and a stable zeta potential (25.5 +/- 2.6 mV) in a buffer solution (pH 4.5). The size of the nanoparticles dramatically increased with the pH value of the medium. Both in vitro and in vivo studies revealed that the prepared nanoparticle suspension was better at sustaining the release of pilocarpine than either simulated tear fluid or commercial eye drops.

Chitosan-based hydrogels were prepared by grafting with poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) and poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (pHEMA) through ultraviolet polymerization to further improve its hydrophilic nature and enhance its mechanical properties. The epidermal growth factor (EGF) was incorporated inside the hydrogels to stimulate the wound healing. The physical characterization of chitosan-PAA-pHEMA hydrogel indicates that it is highly hydrophilic with adequate properties for wound dressing purpose. The biological characterization shows that chitosan-based hydrogel retains its thrombogenic and antibacterial properties. The in vivo wound healing experiment demonstrates that the hydrogel-incorporated EGF has better wound healing rate than other dressings.

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