Phylogeographic studies of highly mobile large carnivores suggest that intra-specific genetic differentiation of modern species might be the consequence of the most recent Pleistocene glaciation. However, the relative influence of biogeographical processes and subsequent humaninduced population fragmentation requires a better understanding. Poland represents the western edge of relatively continuous distributions of many wide-ranging species, e.g. lynx (Lynx lynx), wolves (Canis lupus), moose (Alces alces) and, therefore, a key area for understanding historic and contemporary patterns of gene flow in central Europe. We examined wolf genetic structure in Poland and in a recently recolonized area in eastern Germany using microsatellite profiles (n = 457) and mitochondrial DNA sequencing (mtDNA, n = 333) from faecal samples. We found significant genetic structure and high levels of differentiation between wolves in the Carpathian Mountains and the Polish lowlands. Our findings are consistent with previously reported mtDNA subdivision between northern lowlands and southern mountains, and add new and concordant findings based on autosomal marker variation. Wolves in western Poland and eastern Germany showed limited differentiation from northeastern Poland. Although the presence of private alleles suggests immigration also from areas not sampled in this study, most individuals seem to be immigrants from northeastern Poland or their descendants. We observed moderate genetic differentiation between certain northeastern lowland regions separated by less than 50 km. Moreover, mtDNA results indicated a southeastern subpopulation near the border with Ukraine. The observed structure might reflect landscape fragmentation and/orecological differences resulting in natal habitat-biased dispersal.

1.Following protection measures implemented since the 1970s, large carnivores are currently increasing in number and returning to areas from which they were absent for decades or even centuries. Monitoring programmes for these species rely extensively on non-invasive sampling and genotyping. However, attempts to connect results of such studies at larger spatial or temporal scales often suffer from the incompatibility of genetic markers implemented by researchers in different laboratories. This is particularly critical for long-distance dispersers, revealing the need for harmonized monitoring schemes that would enable the understanding of gene flow and dispersal dynamics. 2. Based on a review of genetic studies on grey wolves Canis lupus from Europe, we provide an overview of the genetic markers currently in use, and identify opportunities and hurdles for studies based on continent-scale datasets. 3. Our results highlight an urgent need for harmonization of methods to enable transnational research based on data that have already been collected, and to allow these data to be linked to material collected in the future. We suggest timely standardization of newly developed genotyping approaches, and propose that action is directed towards the establishment of shared single nucleotide polymorphism panels, next-generation sequencing of microsatellites, a common reference sample collection and an online database for data exchange. 4. Enhanced cooperation among genetic researchers dealing with large carnivores in consortia would facilitate streamlining of methods, their faster and wider adoption, and production of results at the large spatial scales that ultimately matter for the conservation of these charismatic species.

The diet of wolves Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758 was studied from October 1989 to November 1992 in the Bieszczady Mountains, southeastern Poland. A total of 221 wolf scats were collected and analyzed to determine the prey species consumed by wolves in each season. Cervids (red and roe deer) obviously predominated in wolf diet and consisted from 65% of winter biomass to 96% of summer biomass consumed. The red deer made up approximately 95% and roe deer only 5% of total cervid biomass consumed. During summer deer fawns made up 28% of total cervid biomass consumed. The wild boar constituted more significant food only during winter -17% of biomass eaten. Among wild boars, piglets were selected and made up 66% of total wild boar biomass consumed during winter. Domestic livestock represented more significant food in winter (16% of biomass eaten) and was consumed as carrion laid out by hunters to bait wolves. Other food categories as hares, voles and insectivores played a negligible part in the wolf diet. Spring, summer and autumn diet were little diversified. Only winter diet differed significantly from other seasons for the presence of wild boar and cervids.

Context Connectivity assessments typically rely on resistance surfaces derived from habitat models, assuming that higher-quality habitat facilitates movement. This assumption remains largely untested though, and it is unlikely that the same environmental factors determine both animal movements and habitat selection, potentially biasing connectivity assessments. Objectives We evaluated how much connectivity assessments differ when based on resistance surfaces from habitat versus movement models. In addition, we tested how sensitive connectivity assessments are with respect to the parameterization of the movement models.Methods We parameterized maximum entropy models to predict habitat suitability, and step selection functions to derive movement models for brown bear (Ursus arctos) in the northeastern Carpathians. We compared spatial patterns and distributions of resistance values derived from those models, and locations and characteristics of potential movement corridors. Results Brown bears preferred areas with high forest cover, close to forest edges, high topographic complexity, and with low human pressure in both habitat and movement models. However, resistance surfaces derived from the habitat models based on predictors measured at broad and medium scales tended to underestimate connectivity, as they predicted substantially higher resistance values for most of the study area, including corridors. 123Landscape Ecol (2016) 31:1863-1882 DOI 10.1007 Conclusions Our findings highlighted that connectivity assessments should be based on movement information if available, rather than generic habitat models. However, the parameterization of movement models is important, because the type of movement events considered, and the sampling method of environmental covariates can greatly affect connectivity assessments, and hence the predicted corridors.

From 1991 to 1995, wolf Canis lupus (Linnaeus, 1758) population dynamics were studied in Bieszczady National Park and the surrounding area (520 km 2 ). The study area was utilized by 5 packs. Pack sizes averaged 5.6 in early and 3.9 in late winter. Overwinter declines in wolf numbers ranged from 21% to 39% (x = 29%), which corresponded well to the known number of wolves killed by hunters or dead of other causes. After every winter decline, wolf numbers recovered through reproduction. Generally, wolf numbers were stable or slightly decreasing during the study. Three neighbouring wolf packs occupied an area of 340 km 2 and the estimated territory size averaged 85 km'. The estimated density of wolves averaged 5.1/100 km 2 in early winter and 3.3/100 km 2 in late winter. Of all known causes of wolf mortality, 86% were from legal hunting, 5% were from poaching, and 9% were from natural causes. Bieszczady National Park is small in size and its topography influences the spatial distribution of packs. No single pack was fully contained within, or protected by the Park. The number of wolves is overestimated in official reports, because the same packs are likely counted as different groups in neighbouring census units. On hunting grounds adjacent to Bieszczady NP, harvest plans exceed the actual number of wolves which inhabit the area. The creation of a wolf protection zone around Bieszczady NP and some regulations for wolf management in the rest of the region are proposed.

OEmietana W. 2005. Selectivity of wolf predation on red deer in the Bieszczady Mountains, Poland. Acta Theriologica 50: 277-288.A pattern of wolf Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758 predation on red deer Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758 was studied in Bieszczady Mountains in 1991-2002. In total 324 remains of red deer > 4 months old, killed by wolves throughout the year, were found. The sex, age and bone marrow fat content of wolf kills were compared with the same characteristics within the free living red deer population. The overall contribution of calves killed by wolves (24%) in October-May was higher than in the population (17%), and decreased from autumn to spring. Adult males were more vulnerable to wolf predation than adult females: stags constituted 62% and hinds 38% of adult red deer killed by wolves, whereas in the population, the percentages were 37 and 63%, respectively. Stags killed by wolves were younger (x = 4.1 years old) than hinds (x = 8.9 years old). Wolves killed more > 8 years old hinds and < 5 years old stags than available in the population. In wolf kills, the average fat content in femur marrow was higher among hinds (84.9%) than stags (69.3%) and calves (66.1%). Only 8% of hinds had < 70% femur marrow fat content, whereas 40% of calves and 38% of stags had marrow fat values below that level. Marrow fat content showed seasonal variation and was the lowest in March among all sex-age classes. The monthly share of stags in all kills, and hinds in hind-calf part of the sample was negatively correlated with their monthly average bone marrow fat content, and monthly share of calves was positively correlated with monthly average bone marrow fat content of adults. The segregation of social units (hind-calf and stag groups), except during the rutting season, and the low fat reserves of males from midwinter until spring contribute to the high overall incidence of calves and adult males and the relatively low incidence of adult females among wolf kills.

The abundance and distribution of large carnivores in Europe have been historically reduced. Their recovery requires multilevel coordination, especially regarding transboundary populations. Here, we apply nuclear and mitochondrial genetic markers to test for admixture level and its impact on population genetic structure of contemporary brown bears (Ursus arctos) from the Eastern, Southern, and Western Carpathians. Carpathian Mountains (Europe). Nearly 400 noninvasive brown bear DNA samples from the Western (Poland) and Eastern Carpathians (Bieszczady Mountains in Poland, Slovakia, Ukraine) were collected. Together with DNA isolates from Slovakia and Romania, they were analyzed using the set of eight microsatellite loci and two mtDNA regions (control region and cytochrome b). A set of 113 individuals with complete genotypes was used to investigate genetic differentiation across national boundaries, genetic structuring within and between populations, and movement between populations. Transboundary brown bear subpopulations (Slovakia and Poland) did not show significant internal genetic structure, and thus were treated as cohesive units. All brown bears from the Western Carpathians carried mitochondrial haplotypes from the Eastern lineage, while the Western lineage prevailed in the brown bears from the Bieszczady Mountains. Despite similar levels of microsatellite variability, we documented significant differentiation among the studied populations for nuclear markers and mtDNA. We also detected male‐biased and asymmetrical movement into the Bieszczady Mountains population from the Western Carpathians. Our findings suggest initial colonization of the Western Carpathians by brown bears possessing mtDNA from the Eastern lineage. Genetic structuring among populations at microsatellite loci could be a result of human‐mediated alterations. Detected asymmetric gene flow suggests ongoing expansion from more abundant populations into the Bieszczady Mountains and thus supports a metapopulation model. The knowledge concerning this complex pattern can be implemented in a joint Carpathian brown bear management plan that should allow population mixing by dispersing males.

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