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. 1997. Predation of Eurasian lynx on roe deer and red deer in Białowieża Primeval Forest, Poland. Acta Theriologica 42: 203-224.Patterns of lynx Lynx lynx (Linnaeus, 1758) predation on ungulates were studied in the Polish part of Białowieża Primeval Forest (580 km 2 ) from scats and prey remains of lynx between 1985-1996, and radiotracking of 18 lynx between 1991-1996. Cervids were the main prey and constituted 90% of food biomass consumed (analysis of faeces) and 84% of prey killed. Roe deer Capreolus capreolus was positively selected by all lynx (though stronger by females and subadults than by adult males). Fawns and adult roe deer of both sexes were preyed on in proportion to their abundance in the population. Red deer Cervus elaphus was taken less often than would have been expected at random, and fawns were positively selected by lynx. On average, lynx spent 76 h (3.2 days) feeding on a killed deer (from 38 h in a female with 3 kittens to 105 h in single adult females). Mean searching time (ie time from leaving the remains of one deer to killing another one) was 52 h (2.2 days); from 10 h in a female with 3 young to 104 h in subadults. Thus, the average kill rate by lynx was one deer per 5.4 days. Predation impact of lynx population on roe and red deer was estimated in 1991-1996, when recorded numbers were 288-492 roe deer and 359-607 red deer per 100 km" in late winter (March), and 501-820 roe deer and 514-858 red deer per 100 km" in spring (May/June). During that period densities of deer declined markedly due to deliberately elevated hunting harvest by forestry personnel, aimed at reduction of game damage to silviculture. Densities of adult lynx were little variable (2.4-3.2 inds/100 km ), but reproduction rate strongly varied in response to deer decline, from 0.67 juv/adult lynx in 1991/92 to 0.25 juv/adult lynx in 1995/96. Annually, lynx population killed 110-169 roe deer/100 km 2 , which constituted 21-36% of spring (seasonally highest) numbers of roe deer. Lynx predation was the most important factor of roe deer mortality. Furthermore, lynx population took 42-70 red deer/100 km annually, which constituted 6-13% of spring number of red deer. In red deer mortality, lynx predation played an inferior role to hunting harvest and wolf predation.

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H. 1995. The trophic ecology of wolves and their predatory role in ungulate communities of forest ecosystems in Europe. Acta Theriologica 40: 335-386.Predation by wolves Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758 in ungulate communities in Europe, with special reference to the multi-species system o f Białowieża Primeval Forest (Poland/Belarus), was assessed on the basis results of original research and literature. In historical times (post-glacial period), the geographical range of the w olf and most ungulate species in Europe decreased considerably. Community richness of ungulates and potential prey for wolves, decreased over most o f the continent from 5 -6 species to 2 -3 species. The w olf is typically an opportunistic predator with a highly diverse diet; however, cervids are its preferred prey. Red deer Ceruus elaphus are positively selected from ungulate communities in all localities, moose Alces alces are the major prey only where middle-sized species are scarce. Roe deer Capreolus capreolus are locally preyed on intensively, especially where they have high density, co-exist mainly with moose or wild boar Sus scrofa, and red deer is scarce or absent. Wild boar are generally avoided, except in a few locations; and European bison Bison bonasus are not preyed upon by wolves. W olf predation contributes substantially to the total natural mortality of ungulates in Europe: 42.5% for red deer, 34.5% for moose, 25.7% for roe der, and only 16% for wild boar. Food niche breadth (B) o f wolves in Europe, calculated only for the ungulates considered in this study, increases with the number o f ungulate species in the community. There is also a significant rela tionship between ungulate community breadth and food niche breadth of wolves. Food niche breadth o f wolves, however, does not achieve very high values even in the richest ungulate communities. Wolves easily adapt to locally abundant food of anthropogenic origin (livestock, garbage). The level of predation on livestock may be a result of different husbandry practices (eg use of livestock guarding dogs) rather than of differences in availability of wild and domestic prey. Available data from Europe suggest that wolves likely limit density of red deer and moose in some areas. Roe deer density can be decreased locally by wolves but is limited mainly by lynx Lynx lynx. Wild boar density is more influenced by mast crops of Quercus spp. and Fagus siluatica (and to a lesser extent by snow depth) than by w olf predation.