Hox and Cdx transcription factors regulate embryonic positional identities. Cdx mutant mice display posterior body truncations of the axial skeleton, neuraxis, and caudal urorectal structures. We show that trunk Hox genes stimulate axial extension, as they can largely rescue these Cdx mutant phenotypes. Conversely, posterior (paralog group 13) Hox genes can prematurely arrest posterior axial growth when precociously expressed. Our data suggest that the transition from trunk to tail Hox gene expression successively regulates the construction and termination of axial structures in the mouse embryo. Thus, Hox genes seem to differentially orchestrate posterior expansion of embryonic tissues during axial morphogenesis as an integral part of their function in specifying head-to-tail identity. In addition, we present evidence that Cdx and Hox transcription factors exert these effects by controlling Wnt signaling. Concomitant regulation of Cyp26a1 expression, restraining retinoic acid signaling away from the posterior growth zone, may likewise play a role in timing the trunk-tail transition.

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Caudal related homeobox (Cdx) genes have so far been shown to be important for embryonic axial elongation and patterning in several vertebrate species. We have generated a targeted mutation of mouse Cdx4, the third member of this family of transcription factor encoding genes and the last one to be inactivated genetically. Cdx4-null embryos were born healthy and appeared morphologically normal. A subtle contribution of Cdx4 to anteroposterior (AP) vertebral patterning was revealed in Cdx1/Cdx4 and Cdx2/Cdx4 compound mutants. Neither Cdx4-null nor Cdx1/Cdx4 double mutants are impaired in their axial elongation, but a redundant contribution of Cdx4 in this function was unveiled when combined with a Cdx2 mutant allele. In addition, inactivation of Cdx4 combined with heterozygous loss of Cdx2 results in embryonic death around E10.5 and reveals a novel function of Cdx genes in placental ontogenesis. In a subset of Cdx2/Cdx4 compound mutants, the fully grown allantois failed to fuse with the chorion. The remaining majority of these mutants undergo successful chorio-allantois fusion but fail to properly extend their allantoic vascular network into the chorionic ectoderm and do not develop a functional placental labyrinth. We present evidence that Cdx4 plays a crucial role in the ontogenesis of the allantoic component of the placental labyrinth when one Cdx2 allele is inactivated. The axial patterning role of Cdx transcription factors thus extends posteriorly to the epiblast-derived extra-embryonic mesoderm and, consequent upon the evolution of placental mammals, is centrally involved in placental morphogenesis. The relative contribution of Cdx family members in the stepwise ontogenesis of a functional placenta is discussed, with Cdx2 playing an obligatory part, assisted by Cdx4. The possible participation of Cdx1 was not documented but cannot be ruled out until allelic combinations further decreasing Cdx dose have been analyzed. Cdx genes thus operate in a redundant way during placentogenesis, as they do during embryonic axial elongation and patterning, and independently from the previously reported early Cdx2-specific role in the trophectoderm at implantation.

GNB5 encodes the G protein β subunit 5 and is involved in inhibitory G protein signaling. Here, we report mutations in GNB5 that are associated with heart-rate disturbance, eye disease, intellectual disability, gastric problems, hypotonia, and seizures in nine individuals from six families. We observed an association between the nature of the variants and clinical severity; individuals with loss-of-function alleles had more severe symptoms, including substantial developmental delay, speech defects, severe hypotonia, pathological gastro-esophageal reflux, retinal disease, and sinus-node dysfunction, whereas related heterozygotes harboring missense variants presented with a clinically milder phenotype. Zebrafish gnb5 knockouts recapitulated the phenotypic spectrum of affected individuals, including cardiac, neurological, and ophthalmological abnormalities, supporting a direct role of GNB5 in the control of heart rate, hypotonia, and vision.

Although Hox gene expression has been linked to motoneuron identity, a role of these genes in development of the spinal sensory system remained undocumented. Hoxb genes are expressed at high levels in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. Hoxb8 null mutants manifest a striking phenotype of excessive grooming and hairless lesions on the lower back. Applying local anesthesia underneath the hairless skin suppressed excessive grooming, indicating that this behavior depends on peripheral nerve activity. Functional ablation of mouse Hoxb8 also leads to attenuated response to nociceptive and thermal stimuli. Although spinal ganglia were normal, a lower postmitotic neural count was found in the dorsalmost laminae at lumbar levels around birth, leading to a smaller dorsal horn and a correspondingly narrowed projection field of nociceptive and thermoceptive afferents. The distribution of the dorsal neuronal cell types that we assayed, including neurons expressing the itch-specific gastrin-releasing peptide receptor, was disorganized in the lumbar region of the mutant. BrdU labeling experiments and gene-expression studies at stages around the birth of these neurons suggest that loss of Hoxb8 starts impairing development of the upper laminae of the lumbar spinal cord at approximately embryonic day (E)15.5. Because none of the neuronal markers used was unexpressed in the adult dorsal horn, absence of Hoxb8 does not impair neuronal differentiation. The data therefore suggest that a lower number of neurons in the upper spinal laminae and neuronal disorganization in the dorsal horn underlie the sensory defects including the excessive grooming of the Hoxb8 mutant.anteroposterior patterning ͉ mouse Hox genes ͉ spinal cord ͉ reaction to heat pain and itch

The functional and morphological connectivity between various horizontal cell (HC) types (H1, H2, H3, and H4) and photoreceptors was studied in zebrafish retina. Since HCs are strongly coupled by gap junctions and feedback from HCs to photoreceptors depends strongly on connexin (Cx) hemichannels, we characterized the various HC Cxs (Cx52.6, Cx52.7, Cx52.9, and Cx55.5) in Xenopus oocytes. All Cxs formed hemichannels that were conducting at physiological membrane potentials. The Cx hemichannels differed in kinetic properties and voltage dependence, allowing for specific tuning of the coupling of HCs and the feedback signal from HCs to cones. The morphological connectivity between HC layers and cones was determined next. We used zebrafish expressing green fluorescent protein under the control of Cx promoters. We found that all HCs showed Cx55.5 promoter activity. Cx52.7 promoter activity was exclusively present in H4 cells, while Cx52.9 promoter activity occurred only in H1 cells. Cx52.6 promoter activity was present in H4 cells and in the ventral quadrant of the retina also in H1 cells. Finally, we determined the spectral sensitivities of the HC layers. Three response types were found. Monophasic responses were generated by HCs that contacted all cones (H1 cells), biphasic responses were generated by HCs that contacted M, S, and UV cones (H2 cells), and triphasic responses were generated by HCs that contacted either S and UV cones (H3 cells) or rods and UV cones (H4 cells). Electron microscopy confirms that H4 cells innervate cones. This indicates that rod-driven HCs process spectral information during photopic and luminance information during scotopic conditions.

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