A mid-latitude Sea Surface Temperature Anomaly (SSTA) is introduced into a 9-level polar stereographic southern hemisphere model. Two 50-day anomaly integrations (STAR1 and SSTAR2) are compared with their respective control integrations. In SSTAR2 the anomaly is introduced 10 days later than in SSTARl. Comparison of the two integrations reveals systematic effects in some regions of the Antarctic trough and the mid-Atlantic and Indian Oceans, but no systematic effect in the immediate area of the SSTA. The latter region shows a weak variation in SSTARZ while SSTARl is characterized by a strong variation and a blocking sequence some 20 days into the integration. The region of enhanced cyclogenesis in SSTARl occurs on the equatorial side of the anomaly and not the region of enhancecl surface baroclinicity. One such large cyclone is a major feature of the blocking sequence. Enhanced latent heat release appears to be an important factor in these developments. * The model is a southern hemisphere version of that developed at GFDL, Princeton, U S A . (Mansbe cf a/. 196S),constructed at the Auslralian Numerical Meteorology Research Centre.
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The problems that result from attempts to define "energy conversions" in open systems are briefly reviewed and simple examples are used to illustrate the general inappropriateness of such concepts. Based on the kinetic theory of gases, a physical basis for boundary work is discussed and an unambiguous hierarchy of energy budgets for open systems is then developed. The resulting concepts of energy exchange within open systems, founded on first principles, remain consistent with those for closed systems. Within this framework thermodynamic, mechanical and boundary work remain separate and distinct physical processes. Two applications demonstrate how maintaining an explicit degree of freedom for boundary work influences the interpretation of diagnostic and theoretical results for open systems.
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