Anthropogenic climate change, principally induced by the large volume of carbon dioxide emission from the global economy driven by fossil fuels, has been observed and scientifically proven as a major threat to civilization. Meanwhile, fossil fuel depletion has been identified as a future challenge. Lignocellulosic biomass in the form of organic residues appears to be the most promising option as renewable feedstock for the generation of energy and platform chemicals. As of today, relatively little bioenergy comes from lignocellulosic biomass as compared to feedstock such as starch and sugarcane, primarily due to high cost of production involving pretreatment steps required to fragment biomass components via disruption of the natural recalcitrant structure of these rigid polymers; low efficiency of enzymatic hydrolysis of refractory feedstock presents a major challenge. The valorization of lignin and cellulose into energy products or chemical products is contingent on the effectiveness of selective depolymerization of the pretreatment regime which typically involve harsh pyrolytic and solvothermal processes assisted by corrosive acids or alkaline reagents. These unselective methods decompose lignin into many products that may not be energetically or chemically valuable, or even biologically inhibitory. Exploring milder, selective and greener processes, therefore, has become a critical subject of study for the valorization of these materials in the last decade. Efficient alternative activation processes such as microwave- and ultrasound irradiation are being explored as replacements for pyrolysis and hydrothermolysis, while milder options such as advanced oxidative and catalytic processes should be considered as choices to harsher acid and alkaline processes. Herein, we critically abridge the research on chemical oxidative techniques for the pretreatment of lignocellulosics with the explicit aim to rationalize the objectives of the biomass pretreatment step and the problems associated with the conventional processes. The mechanisms of reaction pathways, selectivity and efficiency of end-products obtained using greener processes such as ozonolysis, photocatalysis, oxidative catalysis, electrochemical oxidation, and Fenton or Fenton-like reactions, as applied to depolymerization of lignocellulosic biomass are summarized with deliberation on future prospects of biorefineries with greener pretreatment processes in the context of the life cycle assessment.

• This study quantifies the nexus as energy intensity and greenhouse gas potential.• Baseline water stress and return flow ratio are identified as water risks.• Source water accessibility significantly contributes to variations in the nexus.• Water risks have little impact on the nexus of wastewater systems.• Study on the nexus is suggested to be conducted at regional levels. A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C TThe importance of the interdependence between water and energy, also known as the water-energy nexus, is well recognized. The water-energy nexus is typically characterized in resource use efficiency terms such as energy intensity. This study aims to explore the quantitative results of the nexus in terms of energy intensity and environmental impacts (mainly greenhouse gas emissions) on existing water systems within urban water cycles. We also characterized the influence of water risks on the water-energy nexus, including baseline water stress (a water quantity indicator) and return flow ratio (a water quality indicator). For the 20 regions and 4 countries surveyed (including regions with low to extremely high water risks that are geographically located in Africa, Australia, Asia, Europe, and North America), their energy intensities were positively related to the water risks. Regions with higher water risks were observed to have relatively higher energy and GHG intensities associated with their water supply systems. This mainly reflected the major influence of source water accessibility on the nexus, particularly for regions requiring energy-intensive imported or groundwater supplies, or desalination. Regions that use tertiary treatment (for water reclamation or environmental protection) for their wastewater treatment systems also had relatively higher energy and GHG emission intensities, but the intensities seemed to be independent from the water risks. On-site energy recovery (e.g., biogas or waste heat) in the wastewater treatment systems offered a great opportunity for reducing overall energy demand and its associated environmental impacts. Future policy making for the water and energy sectors should carefully consider the waterenergy nexus at the regional or local level to achieve maximum environmental and economic benefits. The results from this study can provide a better understanding of the water-energy nexus and informative recommendations for future policy directions for the effective management of water and energy.

No abstract

Monitoring of airborne molecular contamination ͑AMC͒ has become a crucial element of cleanroom management as the production phase of semiconductor devices marches deep into sub-100-nm range. The current understandings of the AMC, particularly those with organic origins, are presented comprehensively in this article based on the research reports within the past ten years. Starting with a review of the chronological development of AMC problems and several approaches for the AMC classifications, this article also examines the merits of several available ambient sampling and surface analytical methods. The focal point of the article is to address the surface deposition potential of organic AMCs by experimentally correlating the surface speciation and abundance of the organic AMCs with their physical and chemical characteristics, together with the kinetic models delineating the rates of deposition for both single-and multiple-contaminant scenarios. In addition, the current progress of the AMC control strategies, especially the development of the chemical filtration technology, is also examined in the paper.

Chitosan, a bio-based polymer which has similar characteristics to those of cellulose, exhibits cationic behavior in acidic solutions and strong affinity for metals ions. Thus, it has received increased attention for the preparation of heterogeneous catalysts. Recent studies demonstrated that chitosan-based catalysts had high sorption capacities, chelating activities, stability and versatility, which could be potentially applied as green reactants in various scientific and engineering applications. This study intends to review the recent development of chitosan-based catalysts, particularly in the aspects of the main mechanisms for preparing the materials and their applications in environmental green chemistry. Studies on the preparation of catalyst nanoparticles/nanospheres supported on chitosan were also reviewed.

No abstract

Samples of airborne and surface-bound microbial contamination were taken in two intensive care units of a large-scale medical center. Microbial analyses included total bacterial and fungal loads, as well as the four bacterial species of Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii. Among the 114 surface samples taken from seven designated surface locations of room and equipment for each patient, P. aeruginosa was the most frequently detected (19.3%) and most abundant (mean count: 4.18 cfu/plate) bacterium, whereas the respirator represented the most heavily contaminated surface location in both total pathogenic bacteria colony counts (272 cfu) and frequency of positive detection (38.2%). P. aeruginosa also represented the most frequently detected (39.1%, n = 46) and abundant (11.52 ± 17.16 cfu/m 3 ) bacterium in the air samples (n = 46), and was the only bacterium exhibiting a positive correlation of the mean counts between air and surface samples. The data analysis results further suggested a higher value of relative risk among the infected patients in the presence of the pathogens as compared to those in the absence of them, although the evidence of a of correlation for the individual bacterial species between the environmental samples and infected patients was inconclusive. This study also found that the mean airborne counts and the detection frequencies of these bacteria after patient visitation periods were higher than those before visitation, and that the installation of local air ionizers did not lead to any discernible differences in total bacterial and fungal concentrations.

No abstract