This study examined the effects of stocking density on live performance, physiological stress level indicators, and processing yields of male broilers grown to 1.8 kg. A total of 3,120 Ross x Ross 708 male chicks was placed into 32 floor pens (5.57 m2/pen). Stocking density treatments were 25, (75 birds/pen), 30 (90 birds/ pen), 35 (105 birds/pen), and 40 (120 birds/pen) kg of BW/m2. The BW gain, feed consumption, and feed conversion were adversely affected with increasing stocking densities by 35 d. Physiological stress indicators (plasma corticosterone, glucose, cholesterol, total nitrites, and heterophil:lymphocyte) were not affected. Litter moisture was higher as stocking density increased, which led to higher footpad lesion scores. In parallel to growth responses, carcass weight was depressed by increasing stocking density, but carcass yield, absolute and relative amounts of abdominal fat, and carcass skin defects were not affected. Increasing stocking density decreased breast fillet weight and its relative yield and breast tender weight, but not breast tender yield. As calculated stocking density increased 5 kg of BW/m2 beyond 25 kg of BW/ m2, final BW and breast fillet weight decreased by 41 and 12 g, respectively. We conclude that increasing stocking density beyond 30 kg of BW/m2 adversely affects growth responses and meat yield of broilers grown to 1.8 kg but does not alter physiological stress indicators.

This study examined responses of male broilers during a 49-d production cycle to 4 placement densities in 2 trials. Trials were pooled because no treatment x trial interaction occurred. In each trial, 1,488 male chicks were randomly placed into 32 floor pens to simulate final densities of 30 (37 chicks/pen), 35 (43 chicks/ pen), 40 (50 chicks/pen), and 45 (56 chicks/pen) kg of BW/m2 of floor space based on a projected final BW of 3.29 kg. Growth rate and nutrient utilization were similar (P > or = 0.05) among the treatments from 1 to 32 d of age. From 1 to 49 d, BW gain (P = 0.011) and feed consumption (P = 0.029) were adversely affected by increasing the placement density from 30 to 45 kg of BW/m2 of floor space. The reduction in cumulative BW gain due to placement density can be partially explained by less feed consumption as evidenced by 95.4% of the sums of squares of BW gain being attributable to feed consumption. Litter moisture content (P = 0.025) and foot pad lesion score (P = 0.001) increased linearly with increasing placement density. Upon processing, whole carcass and breast meat yields relative to BW were not affected (P > or = 0.05) as density increased from 30 to 45 kg/m2. The proportion of whole carcasses with scratches, but not tears, on the back and thighs increased (P = 0.021) as density increased. These results indicate that increasing the density beyond 30 kg/m2 elicited some negative effects on live performance of heavy broilers.

Three trials were conducted to assess the effects of stocking density on physiological adaptive responses of broilers. Male broilers were reared in floor pens under conditions similar to those used commercially in the United States. Accepted indicators of adaptation to a stressor were measured on d 49 including plasma concentrations of corticosterone, glucose, cholesterol, and total nitrites as an indicator of nitric oxide, as well as heterophil:lymphocyte ratio. In trial 1, calculated stocking densities were 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, and 55 kg of BW/ m2 and in trials 2 and 3, stocking densities were 30, 35, 40, and 45 kg of BW/m2. Stocking densities were calculated based on a final BW of 3.3 kg. Linear trend analyses were used to assess the role of stocking density on each of the physiological parameters. Results indicate that stocking density did not cause physiological adaptive changes indicative of stress.

Neural networks offer an alternative to regression analysis for biological growth modeling. Very little research has been conducted to model animal growth using artificial neural networks. Twenty-five male chicks (Ross x Ross 308) were raised in an environmental chamber. Body weights were determined daily and feed and water were provided ad libitum. The birds were fed a starter diet (23% CP and 3,200 kcal of ME/kg) from 0 to 21 d, and a grower diet (20% CP and 3,200 kcal of ME/ kg) from 22 to 70 d. Dead and female birds were not included in the study. Average BW of 18 birds were used as the data points for the growth curve to be modeled. Training data consisted of alternate-day weights starting with the first day. Validation data consisted of BW at all other age periods. Comparison was made between the modeling by the Gompertz nonlinear regression equation and neural network modeling. Neural network models were developed with the Neuroshell Predictor. Accuracy of the models was determined by mean square error (MSE), mean absolute deviation (MAD), mean absolute percentage error (MAPE), and bias. The Gompertz equation was fit for the data. Forecasting error measurements were based on the difference between the model and the observed values. For the training data, the lowest MSE, MAD, MAPE, and bias were noted for the neural-developed neural network. For the validation data, the lowest MSE and MAD were noted with the genetic algorithm-developed neural network. Lowest bias was for the neural-developed network. As measured by bias, the Gompertz equation underestimated the values whereas the neural- and genetic-developed neural networks produced little or no overestimation of the observed BW responses. Past studies have attempted to interpret the biological significance of the estimates of the parameters of an equation. However, it may be more practical to ignore the relevance of parameter estimates and focus on the ability to predict responses.

The response of adrenal glands of Single Comb White Leghorn laying hens housed under different population densities was studied. The birds were reared in floor pens until they were 19 weeks of age, after which they were housed in cages. Cage size was 30.5 X 50.8 cm. Three, four, or five birds were housed per cage. Corticosterone concentrations were measured in all birds 48 and 96 hr following housing in cages and weekly thereafter for 6 weeks. Corticosterone concentrations were consistently higher in the serum of birds housed five per cage than in birds housed three or four per cage. It was concluded that in order to minimize physiological stress in cage layers, more than 387 cm2 per bird should be considered.

Understanding the role of the pineal gland in regulating the immune response and the role of photoperiod in influencing pineal gland secretions are becoming increasingly important. The purposes of the present experiments were to investigate the effects of different photoperiod regimens on T- and B-lymphocyte activities in broiler chickens. Next, the influence of different photoperiod regimens on the responsiveness of lymphocytes to melatonin in vitro was examined. The effect of melatonin in vitro on lymphocyte activities was also studied, regardless of the photoperiod received. Finally, the effects of photoperiod on the profiles of different splenocyte cell types were investigated. To study the effect of photoperiod on lymphocyte activities, different photoperiod regimens were used. These were: constant lighting, 23 h light:1 h darkness; intermediate lighting, 12 h light:12 h darkness; and intermittent lighting, 1 h light:3 h darkness. Peripheral blood and splenic lymphocyte activities were tested at 3 and 6 wk of age by performing a mitogen cell-proliferation assay with a polyclonal T-cell mitogen, concanavalin A (Con A), and T-dependent B-cell mitogen, pokeweed mitogen (PWM). To study the effect of photoperiod on the responsiveness of lymphocytes to melatonin in vitro or the effect of melatonin in vitro on lymphocyte activities regardless of photoperiod received, lymphocytes from the chickens that were exposed to the different photoperiod regimens were incubated with mitogen and different concentrations of melatonin. To study the effect of photoperiod on profiles of different cell types, the percentages of splenocyte subpopulations from birds exposed to different photo-periods were determined using flow cytometry with CD4+, CD8+, CD3+, and B-cell markers. The results of these studies indicate that splenic T and B lymphocytes from 6-wk-old chickens grown in intermittent lighting had higher activities than those from chickens grown in constant lighting. Peripheral blood and splenic lymphocytes from chickens raised under constant lighting were more responsive to melatonin in vitro than those from chickens raised under intermittent lighting. This difference in response may be due to lower levels of melatonin in birds receiving constant lighting, making them more sensitive to melatonin in vitro. Melatonin in vitro enhanced the mitogenic response of peripheral blood T lymphocytes from 6-wk-old chickens, splenic T lymphocytes from 3-wk-old chickens, and splenic T and possibly B lymphocytes from 6-wk-old chickens. Finally, intermittent lighting increased the percentages of splenic CD4+, CD8+, and CD3+ cells but not B-cell subpopulations at 6 wk of age, presumably because of increased levels of melatonin in birds receiving intermittent lighting. Our results re-emphasize the importance of melatonin in regulating host immune response; this regulation could be accomplished through exposing broiler chicks to intermittent lighting.

The influence of population density on the growth performance and stress level of Hubbard x Hubbard chicks of equally mixed sex was studied. Six hundred and sixteen birds were housed under .05, .07, .09, or .11 m2 per bird (four replicates per density) from 0 to 7 wk. There were no treatment effects on feed conversion at 6 or 7 wk. Birds housed at .07, .09, and .11 m2 per bird had similar 7-wk BW and carcass weights, all significantly higher than birds housed at .05 m2 per bird. Under .05 m2 per bird, a higher percentage of breast blisters and ammonia burns (30%) was observed than at other densities. The 7-wk heterophil to lymphocyte ratios of birds raised at .09 and .11 m2 per bird (.42 and .45) were significantly higher than those at .05 and .07 m2 per bird (.28 and .30). Lowered BW and decreased carcass quality of birds raised at .05 m2 per bird suggested that these birds were stressed. However, decision analysis of economic potential indicated that the optimum profit potential per square meter was .05 m2 per bird for Maximax and Equally Likely decisions and .07 m2 per bird for the Maximin decision.

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