A method was developed and validated for the determination of acrylamide in carbohydrate-based foods. Solid-phase extraction employing a mixed-bed anion and cation exchange cartridge in series with a C18 extraction disk was used to clean-up water extracts of food samples before analysis by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry detection. The limit of detection was calculated as approximately 25 microg kg(-1) and the limit of reporting was 50 microg kg(-1). The average method recovery for 84 samples from a range of matrices reporting was 99% with a relative standard deviation of 11.2%. A survey was conducted of 112 samples of carbohydrate-based foods composited from 547 products available in the Australian market. The analytical results were used in conjunction with Australian food consumption data derived from the 1995 National Nutrition Survey (NNS) to prepare preliminary dietary exposure estimates of Australians to acrylamide through only the food groups examined. Mean dietary exposure to acrylamide resulting from consumption of the foods tested, for Australians aged 2 years and above, was estimated as 22-29 microg day(-1) (equivalent to 0.4-0.5 microg kg(-1) bodyweight day(-1)) and between 73 and 80 microg day(-1) (1.4 and 1.5 microg kg(-1) bodyweight day(-1)) for 95th percentile consumers. Young children (2-6 years) consuming acrylamide-containing foods had a higher acrylamide exposure on a per kilogram bodyweight basis (mean 1.0-1.3 microg kg(-1) bodyweight day(-1)). The estimated exposure of Australians to acrylamide is similar to that estimated for other countries.

Background: Nearly one in four Australian adults is vitamin D deficient (serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations [25(OH)D] < 50 nmol L -1 ) and current vitamin D intakes in the Australian population are unknown. Internationally, vitamin D intakes are commonly below recommendations, although estimates generally rely on food composition data that do not include 25(OH)D. We aimed to estimate usual vitamin D intakes in the Australian population. Methods: Nationally representative food consumption data were collected for Australians aged ≥ 2 years (n = 12,153) as part of the cross-sectional 2011-2013 Australian Health Survey (AHS). New analytical vitamin D food composition data for vitamin D 3 , 25(OH)D 3 , vitamin D 2 and 25(OH)D 2 were mapped to foods and beverages that were commonly consumed by AHS participants.Usual vitamin D intakes (µg day -1 ) by sex and age group were estimated using the National Cancer Institute method. Results: Assuming a 25(OH)D bioactivity factor of 1, mean daily intakes of vitamin D ranged between 1.84 and 3.25 µg day -1 . Compared to the estimated average requirement of 10 µg day -1 recommended by the Institute of Medicine, more than 95% of people had inadequate vitamin D intakes. We estimated that no participant exceeded the Institute of Medicine's Upper Level of Intake (63-100 µg day -1 , depending on age group). Conclusions: Usual vitamin D intakes in Australia are low. This evidence, paired with the high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in Australia, suggests that data-driven nutrition policy is required to safely increase dietary intakes of vitamin D and improve vitamin D status at the population level. K E Y W O R D S 25-hydroxyvitamin D, Australia, food, usual intakes, vitamin D Key points • We quantified usual intakes of vitamin D in the Australian population using up-to-date, comprehensive vitamin D composition data and nationally representative food consumption data.

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The approach used by food regulation agencies to examine the literature and forecast the impact of possible food regulations has many similar features to the approach used in nutritional epidemiological research. We outline the Risk Analysis Framework described by FAO/WHO, in which there is formal progression from identification of the nutrient or food chemical of interest, through to describing its effect on health and then assessing whether there is a risk to the population based on dietary exposure estimates. We then discuss some important considerations for the dietary modeling component of the Framework, including several methodological issues that also exist in research nutritional epidemiology. Finally, we give several case studies that illustrate how the different methodological components are used together to inform decisions about how to manage the regulatory problem.