Ultimately, whether or not a neuron produces a spike determines its contribution to local computations. In response to brief stimuli the probability a neuron will fire can be described by its input-output function, which depends on the net balance and timing of excitatory and inhibitory currents. While excitatory and inhibitory synapses are plastic, most studies examine plasticity of subthreshold events. Thus, the effects of concerted regulation of excitatory and inhibitory synaptic strength on neuronal input-output functions are not well understood. Here, theoretical analyses reveal that excitatory synaptic strength controls the threshold of the neuronal input-output function, while inhibitory plasticity alters the threshold and gain. Experimentally, changes in the balance of excitation and inhibition in CA1 pyramidal neurons also altered their input-output function as predicted by the model. These results support the existence of two functional modes of plasticity that can be used to optimize information processing: threshold and gain plasticity.

No abstract

Simple SummaryThe immense rainforest ecosystems of tropical America represent some of the greatest concentrations of biodiversity on the planet. Prominent among these are evolutionary radiations of freshwater fishes, including electric eels, piranhas, stingrays, and a myriad of small-bodied and colorful tetras, cichlids, and armored catfishes. In all, the many thousands of these forms account for nearly 10% of all the vertebrate species on Earth. This article explores the complimentary roles that ecological and geographic filters play in limiting dispersal in aquatic species, and how these factors contribute to the accumulation of species richness over broad geographic and evolutionary time scales.AbstractThe Neotropical freshwater ichthyofauna has among the highest species richness and density of any vertebrate fauna on Earth, with more than 5,600 species compressed into less than 12% of the world's land surface area, and less than 0.002% of the world's total liquid water supply. How have so many species come to co-exist in such a small amount of total habitat space? Here we report results of an aquatic faunal survey of the Fitzcarrald region in southeastern Peru, an area of low-elevation upland (200–500 m above sea level) rainforest in the Western Amazon, that straddles the headwaters of four large Amazonian tributaries; the Juruá (Yurúa), Ucayali, Purús, and Madre de Dios rivers. All measures of fish species diversity in this region are high; there is high alpha diversity with many species coexisting in the same locality, high beta diversity with high turnover between habitats, and high gamma diversity with high turnover between adjacent tributary basins. Current data show little species endemism, and no known examples of sympatric sister species, within the Fitzcarrald region, suggesting a lack of localized or recent adaptive divergences. These results support the hypothesis that the fish species of the Fitzcarrald region are relatively ancient, predating the Late Miocene-Pliocene (c. 4 Ma) uplift that isolated its several headwater basins. The results also suggest that habitat specialization (phylogenetic niche conservatism) and geographic isolation (dispersal limitation) have contributed to the maintenance of high species richness in this region of the Amazon Basin.

No abstract

Amazonspinther dalmata, a new miniature characid from the streams of rio Purus and rio Madeira, right bank tributaries of the rio Amazonas, is described as a new genus and species of the subfamily Cheirodontinae. The unique characters of the new genus and species are the three remarkable black blotches on the base of the dorsal, anal, and caudal fins, the anteriormost proximal radial of the anal fin with an anteriorly extended lamina entering the abdominal cavity, and the extremely elongate caudal peduncle. The reduced number of ventral procurrent caudal-fin rays (7-9), and the hemal spines of only posterior one, two, or sometimes three caudal vertebrae directly articulating with the ventral procurrent caudal-fin rays further diagnoses the new taxon from remaining genera of the tribe Cheirodontini. The results of a phylogenetic analysis strongly support a close relationship between A. dalmata and Spintherobolus in the tribe Cheirodontini on the basis of fifteen unambiguous synapomorphies. Ten of these characters, previously hypothesized as exclusive synapomorphies for Spintherobolus, were now also identified in Amazonspinther, such as the pattern of exposed neuromasts on the head, the presence of a second pseudotympanum anterior to the first pleural rib, and the nearly discoidal coracoid bone. A discussion about the phylogenetic position of the closely related fossil †Megacheirodon to Spintherobolus and Amazonspinther is also provided. Convergent characters shared between Amazonspinther and the characid Priocharax are discussed in relation to miniaturization. Biogeographical implications of the diversification of Amazonspinther, Spintherobolus, and Megacheirodon lineages are discussed.
Amazonspinther dalmata, um novo caracídeo miniatura de igarapés dos rios Purus e Madeira, afluentes da margem direita do rio Amazonas, é descrito como um novo gênero e nova espécie da subfamília Cheirodontinae. Os caracteres únicos ao novo gênero são as manchas pretas conspícuas na base das nadadeiras dorsal, anal e caudal, o radial proximal mais anterior da nadadeira anal com uma lâmina estendida anteriormente entrando na cavidade abdominal e o pedúnculo caudal extremamente alongado. Caracteres adicionais que diagnosticam o novo táxon dos demais gêneros da tribo Cheirodontini incluem o número reduzido de raios procorrentes caudais (7-9) e os espinhos hemais de somente uma, duas, ou às vezes três das vértebras caudais, diretamente articulados com os raios procorrentes caudais ventrais. Os resultados de uma análise filogenética suportam fortemente uma relação de proximidade entre A. dalmata e Spintherobolus na tribo Cheirodontini com base em quinze sinapomorfias não ambíguas. Dez destes caracteres foram previamente propostos como sinapomorfias exclusivas de Spintherobolus, mas agora são reconhecidos também em Amazonspinther, e.g. o padrão de distribuição de neuromastos expostos na cabeça, o segundo pseudotímpano anterior à primeira costela pleural e o coracóide aproximadamente discóide. Uma discussão a respeito da posição filogen...

No abstract

Four new species of Hisonotus are described from the upper course of the rio Uruguay basin in Brazil: Hisonotus iota from the rio Chapecó drainage; Hisonotus leucophrys from rio Rancho Grande and rio Ariranhas; Hisonotus megaloplax from the rio Passo Fundo drainage; and Hisonotus montanus from the rio Canoas drainage. The species Epactionotus aky, described from the arroyo Yabotí-Guazú drainage in Argentina, is transferred to Hisonotus and rediagnosed. Hisonotus candombe is considered a junior synonym of H. ringueleti. The new taxa, together with H. nigricauda, H. ringueleti, H. charrua, and H. aky represent the genus Hisonotus in the rio Uruguay basin. A taxonomic key for Hisonotus in the rio Uruguay basin is provided. Their distributions are discussed under biogeographic patterns previously proposed for the rio Uruguay basin.

The species of Hisonotus from the laguna dos Patos system are reviewed. Two species with wide distributions are redescribed: Hisonotus laevior and H. nigricauda. Six new species are described from that system: H. notopagos from the rio Camaquã drainage; H. carreiro and H. prata, endemic from the headwaters of rio Taquari drainage; H. vireo, widely distributed in the rio Jacuí basin; and H. brunneus and H. heterogaster restricted to tributaries of the rio Jacuí drainage. Hisonotus leptochilus is here considered a junior synonym of H. laevior. Hisonotus armatus, H. charrua, H. leucofrenatus, and H. taimensis are also present in the region and in total there are twelve species of Hisonotus in the laguna dos Patos system. Their distributions are discussed, species are illustrated and a taxonomic key is provided. As espécies de Hisonotus do sistema da laguna dos Patos são revisadas. Duas espécies com amplas distribuições são redescritas:Hisonotus laevior e H. nigricauda. Seis espécies novas são descritas deste sistema: Hisonotus notopagos, da drenagem do rio Camaquã; H. prata e H. carreiro, endêmicas das cabeceiras do rio Taquari; H. vireo, amplamente distribuída na bacia do rio Jacuí; H. brunneus e H. heterogaster dos tributários da bacia do rio Jacuí. Hisonotus leptochilus é considerado sinônimo júnior de H. laevior. Hisonotus armatus, H. charrua, H. leucofrenatus e H. taimensis também são encontradas na região, e ao total doze espécies de Hisonotus estão presentes no sistema da laguna dos Patos sendo suas distribuições discutidas aqui. As espécies são ilustradas e uma chave taxonômica é fornecida.