Basin-scale planning is needed to minimize impacts in mega-diverse rivers

The freshwater and marine fish faunas of South America are the most diverse on Earth, with current species richness estimates standing above 9100 species. In addition, over the last decade at least 100 species were described every year. There are currently about 5160 freshwater fish species, and the estimate for the freshwater fish fauna alone points to a final diversity between 8000 and 9000 species. South America also has c. 4000 species of marine fishes. The mega-diverse fish faunas of South America evolved over a period of >100 million years, with most lineages tracing origins to Gondwana and the adjacent Tethys Sea. This high diversity was in part maintained by escaping the mass extinctions and biotic turnovers associated with Cenozoic climate cooling, the formation of boreal and temperate zones at high latitudes and aridification in many places at equatorial latitudes. The fresh waters of the continent are divided into 13 basin complexes, large basins consolidated as a single unit plus historically connected adjacent coastal drainages, and smaller coastal basins grouped together on the basis of biogeographic criteria. Species diversity, endemism, noteworthy groups and state of knowledge of each basin complex are described. Marine habitats around South America, both coastal and oceanic, are also described in terms of fish diversity, endemism and state of knowledge. Because of extensive land use changes, hydroelectric damming, water divergence for irrigation, urbanization, sedimentation and overfishing 4-10% of all fish species in South America face some degree of extinction risk, mainly due to habitat loss and degradation. These figures suggest that the conservation status of South American freshwater fish faunas is better than in most other regions of the world, but the marine fishes are as threatened as elsewhere. Conserving the remarkable aquatic habitats and fishes of South America is a growing challenge in face of the rapid anthropogenic changes of the 21st century, and deserves attention from conservationists and policy makers.

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Little is known about the genetic basis of convergent traits that originate repeatedly over broad taxonomic scales. The myogenic electric organ has evolved six times in fishes to produce electric fields used in communication, navigation, predation, or defense. We have examined the genomic basis of the convergent anatomical and physiological origins of these organs by assembling the genome of the electric eel (Electrophorus electricus) and sequencing electric organ and skeletal muscle transcriptomes from three lineages that have independently evolved electric organs. Our results indicate that, despite millions of years of evolution and large differences in the morphology of electric organ cells, independent lineages have leveraged similar transcription factors and developmental and cellular pathways in the evolution of electric organs.

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This study provides the most comprehensive Model-Based Total Evidence (MBTE) phylogenetic analyses of the clade Gymnotiformes to date, reappraising relationships using a dataset comprised of six genes (5277bp) and 223 morphological characters, and an ingroup taxon sample including 120 of 212 valid species representing 34 of the 35 extant genera. Our MBTE analyses indicate the two main gymnotiform clades are Gymnotidae and Sternopygoidei, the latter comprised of Rhamphichthyoidea (Rhamphichthyidae+Hypopomidae) and Sinusoidea (Sternopygidae+Apteronotidae). Within Gymnotidae, Electrophorus and Gymnotus are sister taxa, and Gymnotus includes the following six clades: (i) G. pantherinus clade, (ii) G. coatesi clade, (iii) G. anguillaris clade, (iv) G. tigre clade, (v) G. cylindricus clade, and (vi) G. carapo clade. Within Rhamphichthyoidea, Steatogenae (Steatogenys+Hypopygus) is a member of Rhamphichthyidae, and Hypopomidae includes the following clades: (i) Akawaio, (ii) Hypopomus, (iii) Microsternarchini, and (iv) Brachyhypopomus. Within Sternopygidae, Sternopygus and Eigenmanninae are sister groups, Rhabdolichops is the sister to other Eigenmanninae, Archolaemus+Distocyclus is the sister to Eigenmannia, and Japigny is nested within Eigenmannia. Within Apteronotidae, Sternarchorhamphinae (Sternarchorhamphus+Orthosternarchus) is the sister to Apteronotinae, Adontosternarchus is the sister group to other Apteronotinae, Sternarchorhynchini (Sternarchorhynchus+Platyurosternarchus) is the sister to Navajini, and species assigned to Apteronotus are members of two separate clades: (i) A. sensu stricto in the Apteronotini, and (ii) the "A." bonapartii clade in the Navajini.

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