Conducting polymers (CPs) have received much attention in both fundamental and practical studies because they have electrical and electrochemical properties similar to those of both traditional semiconductors and metals. CPs possess excellent characteristics such as mild synthesis and processing conditions, chemical and structural diversity, tunable conductivity, and structural flexibility. Advances in nanotechnology have allowed the fabrication of versatile CP nanomaterials with improved performance for various applications including electronics, optoelectronics, sensors, and energy devices. The aim of this review is to explore the conductivity mechanisms and electrical and electrochemical properties of CPs and to discuss the factors that significantly affect these properties. The size and morphology of the materials are also discussed as key parameters that affect their major properties. Finally, the latest trends in research on electrochemical capacitors and sensors are introduced through an in-depth discussion of the most remarkable studies reported since 2003.

The electrochemistry of 2,3,5,6-tetrafluoro-7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQF(4)), [TCNQF(4)](•-), and [TCNQF(4)](2-) have been studied in acetonitrile (0.1 M [Bu(4)N][ClO(4)]). Transient and steady-state voltammetric techniques have been utilized to monitor the generation of [TCNQF(4)](•-) and [TCNQF(4)](2-) anions as well as their reactions with trifluoroacetic acid (TFA). In the absence of TFA, the reduction of TCNQF(4) occurs via two, diffusion controlled, chemically and electrochemically reversible, one-electron processes where the reversible formal potentials are 0.31 and -0.22 V vs Ag/Ag(+). Unlike the TCNQ analogues, both [TCNQF(4)](•-) and [TCNQF(4)](2-) are persistent when generated via bulk electrolysis even under aerobic conditions. Voltammetric and UV-vis data revealed that although the parent TCNQF(4) does not react with TFA, the electrochemically generated radical anion and dianion undergo facile protonation to yield [HTCNQF(4)](•), [HTCNQF(4)](-) and H(2)TCNQF(4) respectively. The voltammetry can be simulated to give a complete thermodynamic and kinetic description of the complex, coupled redox and acid-base chemistry. The data indicate dramatically different equilibrium and rate constants for the protonation of [TCNQF(4)](•-) (K(eq) = 3.9 × 10(-6), k(f) = 1.0 × 10(-3) M(-1) s(-1)) and [TCNQF(4)](2-) (K(eq) = 3.0 × 10(3), k(f) = 1.0 × 10(10) M(-1) s(-1)) in the presence of TFA.

Careful control of the reaction stoichiometry and conditions enables the synthesis of both LiTCNQF(4) and Li(2)TCNQF(4) to be achieved. Reaction of LiI with TCNQF(4), in a 4:1 molar ratio, in boiling acetonitrile yields Li(2)TCNQF(4). However, deviation from this ratio or the reaction temperature gives either LiTCNQF(4) or a mixture of Li(2)TCNQF(4) and LiTCNQF(4). This is the first report of the large-scale chemical synthesis of Li(2)TCNQF(4). Attempts to prepare a single crystal of Li(2)TCNQF(4) have been unsuccessful, although air-stable (Pr(4)N)(2)TCNQF(4) was obtained by mixing Pr(4)NBr with Li(2)TCNQF(4) in aqueous solution. Pr(4)NTCNQF(4) was also obtained by reaction of LiTCNQF(4) with Pr(4)NBr in water. Li(2)TCNQF(4), (Pr(4)N)(2)TCNQF(4), and Pr(4)NTCNQF(4) have been characterized by UV-vis, FT-IR, Raman, and NMR spectroscopy, high resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, and electrochemistry. The structures of single crystals of (Pr(4)N)(2)TCNQF(4) and Pr(4)NTCNQF(4) have been determined by X-ray crystallography. These TCNQF(4)(2-) salts will provide useful precursors for the synthesis of derivatives of the dianions.

The fascinating properties of single‐layer graphene isolated by mechanical exfoliation have inspired extensive research efforts toward two‐dimensional (2D) materials. Layered compounds serve as precursors for atomically thin 2D materials (briefly, 2D nanomaterials) owing to their strong intraplane chemical bonding but weak interplane van der Waals interactions. There are newly emerging 2D materials beyond graphene, and it is becoming increasingly important to develop cost‐effective, scalable methods for producing 2D nanomaterials with controlled microstructures and properties. The variety of developed synthetic techniques can be categorized into two classes: bottom‐up and top‐down approaches. Of top‐down approaches, the exfoliation of bulk 2D materials into single or few layers is the most common. This review highlights chemical and physical exfoliation methods that allow for the production of 2D nanomaterials in large quantities. In addition, remarkable examples of utilizing exfoliated 2D nanomaterials in energy and environmental applications are introduced.

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The vibrational spectroscopy of TCNQF40, TCNQF41− and TCNQF42− has been investigated by means of density functional theory. Band assignments in infrared and Raman spectra have been clarified and a series of diagnostics developed for redox level characterisation of TCNQF4 compounds. In the CC stretching region (1460–1600 cm−1), TCNQF40 and TCNQF41− show two bands, with the more energetic being at 1600 cm−1 in TCNQF40 and at approximately 1535 cm−1 in TCNQF41−; in TCNQF42− both modes absorb below 1500 cm−1, often merging to give a single band. In the CF and endocyclic CC stretching region (1290 and 1360 cm−1), TCNQF40 and TCNQF41− show strong bands, whereas TCNQF42− absorbs weakly or not at all. (Additional bands, e.g. from co‐crystallised solvent molecules, may complicate this region.) In the nitrile stretching region (2000–2250 cm−1), modes are highly sensitive to nitrile coordination by metal cations. All three redox levels can produce bands above 2200 cm−1, however bands below 2150 cm−1 are usually due to TCNQF42−. This sensitivity to coordination is likely to affect the spectra of many organic molecular ions.

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