Underwater Sensor Networks (UWSN) have attracted huge attention due to their significance in oceanic observation and exploration. They offer a vast number of applications, many of which require routing the sensed data to a centralized location. This makes routing an important part of the design of such applications. In this paper, we present a comprehensive survey of recently proposed routing protocols for UWSNs. We evaluate the proposed schemes through an extensive set of parameters that define the core characteristics of a routing protocol. Moreover, we present a summary of the methods used by each scheme to familiarize readers with the basic operations of the schemes. We also present our view of the strengths and weakness of each scheme. For ease of description, the addressed routing protocols are divided into two categories: localization-based, and localization-free routing schemes. Each of the two categories is further divided into the protocols that consider node mobility, and those that do not. Lastly, we present our view on open research topics.
Many applications of underwater sensor networks (UWSNs), such as target tracking, reconnaissance and surveillance, and marine life monitoring require information about the geographic locations of the sensed data. This makes the localization of sensor nodes a crucial part of such underwater sensing missions. In the case of mobile UWSNs, the problem becomes challenging, not only due to a need for the periodic tracking of nodes, but also due to network partitioning as a result of the pseudo-random mobility of nodes. In this work, we propose an energy efficient solution for localizing nodes in partitioned networks. Energy consumption is minimized by clustering unlocalized partitioned nodes and allowing only clusterheads to carry out a major part of the localization procedure on behalf of the whole cluster. Moreover, we introduce a retransmission control scheme that reduces energy consumption by controlling unnecessary transmission. The major design goal of our work is to maximize localization coverage while keeping communication overheads at a minimum, thus achieving better energy efficiency. The major contributions of this paper include a clustering technique for localizing partitioned nodes and a retransmission control strategy that reduces unnecessary transmissions.
Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) offer a huge number of applications, most of which require tagging the sensed data with location information. This makes localization algorithms an essential part of UWSN design. This paper presents a comprehensive survey of the recently proposed literature on localization in UWSNs. The surveyed algorithms are evaluated based on a wide-ranging set of parameters which constitute the elementary features of a localization algorithm. Moreover, in order to familiarize the readers with the basic design of the surveyed algorithms, brief description of the mode of operations of each algorithm is presented along with its strengths and weaknesses. The algorithms are divided into two categories based on their computational design i.e., centralized and distributed. Each category is further subdivided into the algorithms that consider node mobility, and those that do not. Towards the end, we present our view on the future research directions in the area of localization in UWSNs.
Knowledge about the geographic coordinates of underwater sensor nodes is of primary importance for many applications and protocols of under water sensor networks (UWSNs) thus making localization of sensor nodes a crucial part of underwater network design. In case of mobile underwater sensor network, location estimation becomes challenging not only due to the need for periodic tracking of nodes, but also due to network partitioning caused by the pseudo-random mobility of nodes. Our proposed technique accomplishes the task of localization in two stages: (1) relative localization of sensor nodes with respect to a reference node at regular intervals during sensing operation. (2) Offline absolute localization of sensor nodes using absolute coordinates of the reference node and relative locations estimated during stage 1. As our protocol deals with mobile underwater sensor networks that may introduce network partitioning, we also propose a partition handling routine to deal with network partitions to achieve high localization coverage. The major design goal of our work is to maximize localization coverage while keeping communication overhead minimum, thus achieving better energy efficiency. Major contributions of this paper are: (1) Two energy efficient relative localization techniques, and (2) A partition handling strategy that ensures localization of partitioned nodes.
Constraints of the underwater environment pose certain challenges to the design of routing protocols for underwater sensor networks. One such constraint is free mobility of sensor nodes with water currents. Free mobility and asymmetric acoustic propagation characteristics may lead to network partitioning which results in one or more nodes being unable to connect to the rest of the network and thus unable to report their sensed data. In this work, we propose a two-stage routing protocol to enable not only the connected nodes but also the partitioned nodes to successfully report their data thus improving the overall packet delivery ratio. We also introduce a minimum energy threshold and a rerouting scheme to delay death of busier nodes, thereby ensuring that nodes stay alive longer for their sensing job, and to avoid connectivity holes, respectively. Moreover, we also resolve forwarding loops to avoid the unnecessary waste of resources. Our results show that the proposed scheme successfully resolves network partitions and achieves a higher packet delivery ratio while avoiding early death of sensor nodes.
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