Tropical peatlands, which coexist with swamp forests, have accumulated vast amounts of carbon as soil organic matter. Since the 1970s, however, deforestation and drainage have progressed on an enormous scale. In addition, El Niñ o and Southern Oscillation (ENSO) drought and large-scale fires, which grow larger under the drought condition, are accelerating peatland devastation. That devastation enhances decomposition of soil organic matter and increases the carbon release to the atmosphere as CO 2 . This phenomenon suggests that tropical peatlands have already become a large CO 2 source, but related quantitative information is limited. Therefore, we evaluated the CO 2 balance of a tropical peat swamp forest in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, using 3 years of CO 2 fluxes measured using the eddy covariance technique from 2002 through 2004. The forest was disturbed by drainage; consequently, groundwater level (GL) was reduced. The net ecosystem CO 2 production (NEP) measurements showed seasonal variation, which was slightly positive or almost zero in the early dry season, and most-negative late in the dry season or early the rainy season. This seasonality is attributable to the seasonal pattern of climate, tree phenology and fires. Slightly positive NEP resulted from smaller ecosystem respiration (RE) and larger gross primary production (GPP) under conditions of high photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) and large leaf area index (LAI). The mostnegative NEP resulted from smaller GPP and larger RE. The smaller GPP was related to high vapor pressure deficit (VPD), small LAI and low PPFD because of smoke from fires. The larger RE was related to low GL. Annual NEP values were estimated respectively as À602, À382 and À313 g C m À2 yr À1 for 2002, 2003 and 2004. These negative NEP values show that the tropical peat swamp forest, disturbed by drainage, functioned as a CO 2 source. That source intensity was highest in 2002, an ENSO year, mainly because of low PPFD caused by dense smoke emitted from large fires.

The temperature response of Jmax, the irradiance-saturated potential rate of photosynthetic electron transport in the absence of Rubisco limitation, has usually been modelled by a complicated, modified Arrhenius type of equation. Light saturation can be difficult to achieve and reduces the precision of fluorescence measurements. Consequently, we calculated the rate of electron transport at 1200 μmol photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) quanta m–2 s–1 from chlorophyll fluorescence measurements on intact soybean leaves [Glycine max (L.) Merr] as temperature increased from 15 to 43°C with 1250 μmol mol–1 ambient [CO2]. Electron transport rate was maximal around 37°C and the decline in rate following further increases in leaf temperature to 43°C was found to be completely reversible immediately upon return to lower temperatures. We report a convenient, new equation for the temperature dependence of the rate of electron transport under high irradiance:...

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Abstract. Indonesia is currently one of the regions with the highest transformation rate of land surface worldwide related to the expansion of oil palm plantations and other cash crops replacing forests on large scales. Land cover changes, which modify land surface properties, have a direct effect on the land surface temperature (LST), a key driver for many ecological functions. Despite the large historic land transformation in Indonesia toward oil palm and other cash crops and governmental plans for future expansion, this is the first study so far to quantify the impacts of land transformation on the LST in Indonesia. We analyze LST from the thermal band of a Landsat image and produce a highresolution surface temperature map (30 m) for the lowlands of the Jambi province in Sumatra (Indonesia), a region which suffered large land transformation towards oil palm and other cash crops over the past decades. The comparison of LST, albedo, normalized differenced vegetation index (NDVI) and evapotranspiration (ET) between seven different land cover types (forest, urban areas, clear-cut land, young and mature oil palm plantations, acacia and rubber plantations) shows that forests have lower surface temperatures than the other land cover types, indicating a local warming effect after forest conversion. LST differences were up to 10.1 ± 2.6 • C (mean ± SD) between forest and clear-cut land. The differences in surface temperatures are explained by an evaporative cooling effect, which offsets the albedo warming effect.Our analysis of the LST trend of the past 16 years based on MODIS data shows that the average daytime surface temperature in the Jambi province increased by 1.05 • C, which followed the trend of observed land cover changes and exceeded the effects of climate warming. This study provides evidence that the expansion of oil palm plantations and other cash crops leads to changes in biophysical variables, warming the land surface and thus enhancing the increase of the air temperature because of climate change.

The potential of palm-oil biofuels to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions compared with fossil fuels is increasingly questioned. So far, no measurement-based GHG budgets were available, and plantation age was ignored in Life Cycle Analyses (LCA). Here, we conduct LCA based on measured CO 2 , CH 4 and N 2 O fluxes in young and mature Indonesian oil palm plantations. CO 2 dominates the on-site GHG budgets. The young plantation is a carbon source (1012 ± 51 gC m −2 yr −1), the mature plantation a sink (−754 ± 38 gC m −2 yr −1). LCA considering the measured fluxes shows higher GHG emissions for palm-oil biodiesel than traditional LCA assuming carbon neutrality. Plantation rotation-cycle extension and earlieryielding varieties potentially decrease GHG emissions. Due to the high emissions associated with forest conversion to oil palm, our results indicate that only biodiesel from second rotation-cycle plantations or plantations established on degraded land has the potential for pronounced GHG emission savings.

Abstract. The El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in 2015 was one of the strongest observed in almost 20 years and set the stage for a severe drought and the emergence of widespread fires and related smoke emission over large parts of Southeast Asia. In the tropical lowlands of Sumatra, which were heavily affected by the drought and haze, large areas of tropical rainforest have been converted into oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) plantations during the past decades. In this study, we investigate the impact of drought and smoke haze on the net ecosystem CO2 exchange, evapotranspiration, yield and surface energy budget in a commercial oil palm plantation in Jambi province (Sumatra, Indonesia) by using micrometeorological measurements, the eddy covariance method, yield data and a multiple linear regression model (MLRM). With the MLRM we identify the contribution of meteorological and environmental parameters to the net ecosystem CO2 exchange. During the initial part of the drought, when incoming shortwave radiation was elevated, net CO2 uptake increased by 50 % despite a decrease in upper-layer soil moisture by 35 %, an increase in air temperature by 10 % and a tripling of atmospheric vapour pressure deficit. Emerging smoke haze decreased incoming solar radiation by 35 % compared to non-drought conditions and diffuse radiation almost became the sole shortwave radiation flux for 2 months, resulting in a strong decrease in net CO2 uptake by 86 %. Haze conditions resulted in a complete pause of oil palm net carbon accumulation for about 1.5 months and contributed to a decline in oil palm yield by 35 %. With respect to a projected pronounced drying trend over the western Pacific during a future El Niño, our model showed that an increase in drought may stimulate net CO2 uptake, while more severe smoke haze, in combination with drought, can lead to pronounced losses in productivity and net CO2 uptake, highlighting the importance of fire prevention.

Photosynthetically active radiation (Q)-use efficiency (epsilon) is an important parameter for deriving carbon fluxes between forest canopies and the atmosphere from meteorological ground and remote sensing data. A common approach is to assume gross primary production (P(g)) and net primary production (P(n)) are proportional to Q absorbed by vegetation (Q(abs)) by defining the proportionality constants epsilon(Pg) and epsilon(Pn) (for P(g) and P(n), respectively). Although remote sensing and climate monitoring provide Q(abs) and other meteorological data at the global scale, information on epsilon is particularly scarce in remote tropical areas. We used a 16-month continuous CO(2) flux and meteorological dataset from a mountainous tropical rain forest in central Sulawesi, Indonesia to derive values of epsilon(Pg) and to investigate the relationship between P(g) and Q(abs). Absorption was estimated with a 1D SVAT model from measured canopy structure and short wave radiation. The half-hourly P(g) data showed a saturation response to Q(abs). The amount of Q(abs) required to saturate P(g) was reduced when water vapor saturation deficit (D) was high. Light saturation of P(g) was still evident when shifting from half-hourly to daily and monthly time scales. Thus, for a majority of observations, P(g) was insensitive to changes in Q(abs). A large proportion of the observed seasonal variability in P(g) could not be attributed to changes in Q(abs) or D. Values of epsilon(Pg) varied little around the long-term mean of 0.0179 mol CO(2) (mol photon)(-1) or 0.99 g C MJ(-1) (the standard deviations were +/- 0.006 and +/- 0.0018 mol CO(2) (mol photon)(-1) for daily and monthly means, respectively). In both cases, epsilon(Pg) values were more sensitive to Q(abs) than to daytime D. These findings show that the current epsilon-approaches fail to predict P(g) at our tropical rain forest site for two reasons: (1) they neglect saturation of P(g) when Q(abs) is high; and (2) they do not include factors, other than Q(abs) and D, that determine seasonality and annual sums of P(g).

Upwelling events analysis in southern coast of Java and Banda sea were conducted. The events were identified by using satellite data i.e. wind surface, Sea Surface Temperature (SST) and ocean color during period of 14 years (2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015)(2016) which calculated by Ekman pumping and Ekman transport. It's found that Ekman pumping velocity in Banda Sea reached a maximum in June-July-August (JJA) by approximately 3,65x10 -6 ms -1 . Comparing with Ekman transport, Ekman pumping makes an even greater contribution to the local upwelling in Banda Sea. Ekman pumping velocity in southern coast of Java reached a maximum in June-July-August (JJA) by approximately 4,9x10 -6 ms -1. Ekman pumping and Ekman transport makes an equal contribution to coastal upwelling in southern coast of Java. That's related to highest clorophyll-a concentration apperars in JJA periode. Partial correlation analysis then was applied to identify a correlation between chlorophyll-a concentration and interannual climate variabilities such as ENSO and IOD. Partial Correlation between chlorophyll-a and Nino 3.4 and DMI-Dipole Mode Index (controlled) in Banda Sea is 0.18, and 0.05 in southercoast of Java. It's represent ENSO (Elnino Southern Oscilation) has higher influences to Banda Sea than southern coast of Java. Partial correlation between chlorophyll-a and DMI and Nino 3.4 (controlled) is 0.55 in southern coast of Java, and 0.25 in Banda Sea. Its represent IOD (Indian Ocean Dipole) has higher influences to southern coast of Java than Banda Sea. Upwelling in Banda sea and along southern coast of Java dominantly occurs in southeast monsoon as a responds to regional wind driven motion associated with the monsoon climate. Various condition of chlorophyll-a booming also occured according to combination of ENSO and IOD events.