A 2D particle-in-cell code, including the space charge effects of insulator surface charge, is established to simulate the initiation of insulator surface flashover. The simulation is started with a field electron emission, which provides the seed electrons of the surface flashover discharge. Then the secondary electron emission is caused by the seed electrons on the insulator surface, gets into an avalanche, and saturates rapidly in a region between the cathode and anode. And the saturation region spreads to the anode at a speed of ∼107 m/s, which is coincident with the experiment measurement.
We have numerically studied the evolution of heavy ions that expand in a cold background plasma at a large scale. Two typical collective behaviors of the heavy ions are identified with the conditions where only the traversing heavy ions' initial total mass is different. Our work has demonstrated that a difference in the initial total mass of the moving heavy ions is able to induce completely different collective behaviors of the plasma. The simulation is performed via the hybrid model in which the ions and electrons are treated as classical particles and mass-less fluids, respectively. Due to the imbalance of the electric and magnetic force on the heavy ions, these particles will evolve into different collective patterns eventually. These patterns manifest a rather different stopping behavior of the moving ions and an opposite drifting direction of the electron fluid at the rim of the expanding plasma. Further numerical and analytical calculations show that the imbalance depends not only on the number densities of the plasma ions but also on the spatial variations of the magnetic fields. Our work reveals that the collective behavior of the heavy ions is highly non-linear, and the non-linearity is able to induce different phenomena in the evolution of the system at a large scale.
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