Grassland biodiversity is vulnerable to land use change. How to best manage semi-natural grasslands for maintaining biodiversity is still unclear in many cases because land-use processes may depend on environmental conditions and the indirect effects of land-use on biodiversity mediated by altered abiotic and biotic factors are rarely considered. Here we evaluate the relative importance of the direct and indirect effects of grazing intensity on plant communities along an elevational gradient on a large topographic scale in the Eastern Carpathians in Ukraine. We sampled for two years 31 semi-natural grasslands exposed to cattle grazing. Within each grassland site we measured plant community properties such as the number of species, functional groups, and the proportion of species undesirable for grazing. In addition, we recorded cattle density (as a proxy for grazing intensity), soil properties (bare soil exposure, soil organic carbon, and soil pH) and densities of soil decomposers (earthworms and soil microorganisms). We used structural equation modelling to explore the direct and indirect effects of grazing intensity on plant communities along the elevation gradient. We found that cattle density decreased plant species and functional diversity but increased the proportion of undesirable species. Some of these effects were directly linked to grazing intensity (i.e., species richness), while others (i.e., functional diversity and proportion of undesirable species) were mediated via bare soil exposure. Although grazing intensity decreased with elevation, the effects of grazing on the plant community did not change along the elevation gradient. Generally, elevation had a strong positive direct effect on plant species richness as well as a negative indirect effect, mediated via altered soil acidity and decreased decomposer density. Our results indicate that plant diversity and composition are controlled by the complex interplay among grazing intensity and changing environmental conditions along an elevation gradient. Furthermore, we found lower soil pH, organic carbon and decomposer density with elevation, indicating that the effects of grazing on soil and related ecosystem functions and services in semi-natural grasslands may be more pronounced with elevation. This demonstrates that we need to account for environmental gradients when attempting to generalize effects of land-use intensity on biodiversity.

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24Grassland biodiversity is among the most vulnerable to land use. How to best manage 25 semi-natural grasslands for maintaining biodiversity is still unclear in many cases because 26 processes may depend on environmental conditions and indirect effects are rarely considered. 27 Here we evaluate the relative importance of direct and indirect effects of grazing intensity on 28 plant communities along an elevational gradient on a large topographic scale in the Eastern 29 Carpathians in Ukraine. We sampled 31 semi-natural grasslands exposed to cattle grazing in 30 two years. Within each grassland site we measured plant community properties such as the 31 number of species, functional groups, and the proportion of undesirable weeds. In addition, 32 we recorded cattle density (as proxy for grazing intensity), soil properties (bare soil exposure, 33 soil organic carbon, and soil pH) and densities of soil decomposers (earthworms and soil 34 microorganisms). We used structural equation modelling to explore direct and indirect effects 35 of grazing intensity on plant communities along the elevation gradient. We found that cattle 36 density decreased plant species and functional diversity but increased the proportion of 37 undesirable weeds. Some of these effects were directly linked to grazing intensity (i.e., 38 species richness), while others (i.e., functional diversity and proportion of undesirable weeds) 39 were mediated via bare soil exposure. Although grazing intensity decreased with elevation, 40 the effects of grazing on the plant community did not change along the elevation gradient. 41Generally, elevation had a strong positive direct effect on plant species richness as well as a 42 negative indirect effect, mediated via altered soil acidity and decreased decomposer density. 43 Our results indicate that plant diversity and composition are controlled by the complex 44 interplay among grazing intensity and changing environmental conditions along elevation. 45Furthermore, we found lower soil pH, organic carbon and decomposer density with elevation, 46 indicating that the effects of grazing on soil and related ecosystem functions and services in 47 semi-natural grasslands may be more pronounced with elevation. This demonstrates that we 3 48 need to account for environmental gradients when attempting to generalize effects of land-use 49 intensity on biodiversity. 50 51 53 4 55 Introduction 56 Grasslands cover more than 40% of the global terrestrial area [1] and are among the 57 most species-rich habitats in Europe [2]. As a result of their high biodiversity, grasslands 58 provide crucial ecosystem functions and services beyond that of livestock forage production 59 [3-7]. However, grassland biodiversity compared to the diversity in other ecosystem types is 60 among the most vulnerable to human impact, particularly to land-use change [8]. Of 61 extraordinary importance for biodiversity are semi-natural grasslands [2,6,7], which are 62 remnants of habitats created by tree cutting, haymaking, or low-intens...

Продовжено дослідження можливостей гео метричного моделювання нехаотичних періодич них траєкторій руху вантажу хитної пружини та її різновидів. В літературі хитною пружиною (swinging spring) називають різновид матема тичного маятника, який складається з точко вого вантажу, приєднаного до невагомої пружи ни. Другий кінець пружини фіксується нерухомо. Розглядаються маятникові коливання пружи ни у вертикальній площині за умови збереження прямолінійності її осі. Шукана траєкторія ван тажу хитної пружини моделюється з викорис танням рівнянь Лагранжа другого роду. Актуальність теми визначається необхідні стю дослідження умов відмежування від хаотич них коливань елементів механічних конструк цій, до складу яких входять пружини, а саме визначення раціональних значень параметрів для забезпечення періодичних траєкторій їх коли вань. Хитні пружини можна використати як механічні ілюстрації при дослідженні складних технологічних процесів динамічних систем, коли нелінійно зв'язані коливальні компоненти систе ми обмінюються енергією між собою. Одержані результати дозволяють долучити до переліку числових параметрів хитної пружи ни ще й періодичні криві як «параметри» в гра фічній формі. Тобто визначити числові значення параметрів, які б забезпечили існування напе ред заданої форми періодичної траєкторії руху вантажу хитної пружини. Розглянуто приклад обчислення маси вантажу за відомими жорст кістю пружини, її довжиною без навантажен ня, початковими умовами ініціалізації коливань, а також (увага) формою періодичної траєкторії цього вантажу. Одержано періодичні траєкторії руху вантажу для модифікацій хитної пружи ни -таких як підвішеної до рухомого візка і вісь якої збігається з математичним маятником. А також двох хитних пружин зі спільним рухо мим вантажем і з різними точками кріплення. Одержані результати проілюстровано комп'ю терними анімаціями коливань відповідних хит них пружин та їх різновидів. Результати можна використати як пара дигму для вивчення нелінійних зв'язаних систем, а також при розрахунках варіантів механічних пристроїв, де пружини впливають на коливання їх елементів. А також у випадках, коли в техно логіях використання механічних пристроїв необ хідно відмежуватися від хаотичних переміщень вантажів і забезпечити періодичні траєкторії їх рухуКлючові слова: маятникові коливання, траєк торія руху, хитна пружина, рівняння Лагранжа другого роду UDC 514.18

The purpose. To study a spectrum of synanthropic flora of grassland ecosystems subjected to anthropogenic transformation as a result of pasturage of cattle. Methods. Geobotanical researches using Brown-Blank procedure, method of synphyto-indicational scales, statistical with the use of software package Statistica 6. Results. The extent of anthropogenic transformation of flora of the 31-st pastoral ecosystem on the level of synanthropization, apophytization, terrophytization and archeophytizatio of plant communities is evaluated. Ecological structure of synanthropic sorts is specified and the extent of man-impact tolerance of probed pastoral ecosystems is fixed. Conclusions. The significant level of synanthropization and apophytization of the studied phytocenoses is determined. That testifies to the high level of adaptability of plants to propagation and growth in ecotopes changed by man and man-impact tolerance of probed phytocenoses.

Increasing of honey bee colony losses is considered to be a global threat to the planet's ecosystems, food security and global economy (Neumann & Carreck, 2010;van der Zee et al., 2012;van der Zee et al., 2014;Chauzat et al., 2016). A large-scale study of this phenomenon using the standard protocol is conducted by the international honey bee research association COLOSS.Ukraine has been providing the data since 2015. Honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) colony losses in Ukraine after the winter of 2015-2016 have been analyzed according to the physiographic zones of the country. It has been established that the total loss (the sum of the dead colonies and the colonies lost due to the unsolvable queen problems) after the winter of 2015-2016 was 9.9%, which is 1.5 times lower compared to the winter of 2014-2015 (14.9%). The losses due to colonies death decreased (6.3% after the winter of 2015-2016; 13.4% after the winter of [2014][2015], while the losses due to the unsolvable queen problems increased (3.6% after the winter of 2015-2016; 1.6% after the winter of [2014][2015]. The overall loss rate of 12.0% was recorded for the countries participating in the international COLOSS monitoring after the winter of 2015-2016, therefore Ukraine is considered to be the region with the comparatively low risk. Small apiaries had a significantly higher loss rate than medium and large ones. The highest loss rate was noticed in the zone of mixed forests, whereas it was the lowest in the deciduous forest zone. The majority of the respondents (44.4%) from the mixed forest zone, where the loss due to the unsolvable queen problems reached the largest scale, noted that the problems with the queens after this winter were more serious than usual, and wintering of the colonies with new queens was better, than with the old ones (83.3%). 64.4% of respondents conducted monitoring of Varroa infestation level of their colonies, and 82.5% treated the colonies against Varroa. The correlation between the use of some chemical and biotechnical methods against Varroa (lactic acid, amitraz, formic acid, hyperthermia, etc.) and losses due to both colonies death and unsolvable queen problems was revealed. It has been shown that queen replacement before winter contributes to lowering winter mortality (r = -0.18).