Biofilms are widespread in nature and constitute an important strategy implemented by microorganisms to survive in sometimes harsh environmental conditions. They can be beneficial or have a negative impact particularly when formed in industrial settings or on medical devices. As such, research into the formation and elimination of biofilms is important for many disciplines. Several new methodologies have been recently developed for, or adapted to, biofilm studies that have contributed to deeper knowledge on biofilm physiology, structure and composition. In this review, traditional and cutting-edge methods to study biofilm biomass, viability, structure, composition and physiology are addressed. Moreover, as there is a lack of consensus among the diversity of techniques used to grow and study biofilms. This review intends to remedy this, by giving a critical perspective, highlighting the advantages and limitations of several methods. Accordingly, this review aims at helping scientists in finding the most appropriate and up-to-date methods to study their biofilms. ARTICLE HISTORY

Listeria monocytogenes is a food-borne pathogen that is capable of living in harsh environments. It is believed to do this by forming biofilms, which are surface-associated multicellular structures encased in a self-produced matrix. In this paper we show that in L. monocytogenes extracellular DNA (eDNA) may be the only central component of the biofilm matrix and that it is necessary for both initial attachment and early biofilm formation for 41 L. monocytogenes strains that were tested. DNase I treatment resulted in dispersal of biofilms, not only in microtiter tray assays but also in flow cell biofilm assays. However, it was also demonstrated that in a culture without eDNA, neither Listeria genomic DNA nor salmon sperm DNA by itself could restore the capacity to adhere. A search for additional necessary components revealed that peptidoglycan (PG), specifically Nacetylglucosamine (NAG), interacted with the DNA in a manner which restored adhesion. If a short DNA fragment (less than approximately 500 bp long) was added to an eDNA-free culture prior to addition of genomic or salmon sperm DNA, adhesion was prevented, indicating that high-molecular-weight DNA is required for adhesion and that the number of attachment sites on the cell surface can be saturated.

Class IIa bacteriocins may be used as natural food preservatives, yet resistance development in the target organisms is still poorly understood. In this study, the understanding of class IIa resistance development in Listeria monocytogenes is extended, linking the seemingly diverging results previously reported. Eight resistant mutants having a high resistance level (at least a 10 3 -fold increase in MIC), originating from five wild-type listerial strains, were independently isolated following exposure to four different class IIa bacteriocin-producing lactic acid bacteria (including pediocin PA-1 and leucocin A producers). Two of the mutants were isolated from food model systems (a saveloy-type sausage at 10 SC, and salmon juice at 5 SC). Northern blot analysis showed that the eight mutants all had increased expression of EII Bgl and a phospho-β-glucosidase homologue, both originating from putative β-glucosidespecific phosphoenolpyruvate-dependent phosphotransferase systems (PTSs). However, disruption of these genes in a resistant mutant did not confer pediocin sensitivity. Comparative two-dimensional gel analysis of proteins isolated from mutant and wild-type strains showed that one spot was consistently missing in the gels from mutant strains. This spot corresponded to the MptA subunit of the mannose-specific PTS, EII Man t , found only in the gels of wild-type strains. The mptACD operon was recently shown to be regulated by the σ 54 transcription factor in conjunction with the activator ManR. Class IIa bacteriocin-resistant mutants having defined mutations in mpt or manR also exhibited the two diverging PTS expression changes. It is suggested here that high-level class IIa resistance in L. monocytogenes and at least some other Gram-positive bacteria is developed by one prevalent mechanism, irrespective of wild-type strain, class IIa bacteriocin, or the tested environmental conditions. The changes in expression of the β-glucoside-specific and the mannose-specific PTS are both influenced by this mechanism. The current understanding of the actual cause of class IIa resistance is discussed.

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In combination with other strategies, hyperosmolarity and desiccation are frequently used by the food processing industry as a means to prevent bacterial proliferation, and particularly that of foodborne pathogens, in food products. However, it is increasingly observed that bacteria, including human pathogens, encode mechanisms to survive and withstand these stresses. This review provides an overview of the mechanisms employed by Salmonella spp., Shiga toxin producing E. coli, Cronobacter spp., Listeria monocytogenes and Campylobacter spp. to tolerate osmotic and desiccation stresses and identifies gaps in knowledge which need to be addressed to ensure the safety of low water activity and desiccated food products.

It was previously shown that enhanced nisin resistance in some mutants was associated with increased expression of three genes, pbp2229, hpk1021, and lmo2487, encoding a penicillin-binding protein, a histidine kinase, and a protein of unknown function, respectively. In the present work, we determined the direct role of the three genes in nisin resistance. Interruption of pbp2229 and hpk1021 eliminated the nisin resistance phenotype. Interruption of hpk1021 additionally abolished the increase in pbp2229 expression. The results indicate that this nisin resistance mechanism is caused directly by the increase in pbp2229 expression, which in turn is brought about by the increase in hpk1021 expression. We also found a degree of cross-protection between nisin and class IIa bacteriocins and investigated possible mechanisms. The expression of virulence genes in one nisin-resistant mutant and two class IIa bacteriocin-resistant mutants of the same wild-type strain was analyzed, and each mutant consistently showed either an increase or a decrease in the expression of virulence genes (prfA-regulated as well as prfA-independent genes). Although the changes mostly were moderate, the consistency indicates that a mutant-specific change in virulence may occur concomitantly with bacteriocin resistance development.Nisin and the class IIa bacteriocins (also called pediocin-like bacteriocins) are antimicrobial peptides that are produced by lactic acid bacteria and that have the greatest potential as biopreservatives for food. One of the main target organisms in this context is Listeria monocytogenes, a food-borne pathogen that causes severe human illness as well as economic losses for the food industry.Nisin exerts its antimicrobial action by forming pores in the cytoplasmic membrane through an interaction with the peptidoglycan precursor lipid II (for a recent review, see reference 17). Enhanced nisin resistance in L. monocytogenes generally constitutes less than a 10-fold increase in the MIC. Nisin resistance in several, but not all, spontaneous mutants of L.

A concern regarding the use of bacteriocins, as for example the lantibiotic nisin, for biopreservation of certain food products is the possibility of resistance development and potential cross-resistance to antibiotics in the target organism. The genetic basis for nisin resistance development is as yet unknown. We analyzed changes in gene expression following nisin resistance development in Listeria monocytogenes 412 by restriction fragment differential display. The mutant had increased expression of a protein with strong homology to the glycosyltransferase domain of high-molecular-weight penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), a histidine protein kinase, a protein of unknown function, and ClpB (putative functions from homology). The three former proteins had increased expression in a total of six out of 10 independent mutants originating from five different wild-type strains, indicating a prevalent nisin resistance mechanism under the employed isolation conditions. Increased expression of the putative PBP may affect the cell wall composition and thereby alter the sensitivity to cell wall-targeting compounds. The mutants had an isolate-specific increase in sensitivity to different beta-lactams and a slight decrease in sensitivity to another lantibiotic, mersacidin. A model incorporating these observations is proposed based on current knowledge of nisin's mode of action.