Livelihood diversification and greater non-farm income have been considered as useful mechanisms to propel growth, lower rural poverty and augment farm income in the developing countries. Little, however, is known about its im-plications for nutritional outcomes such as dietary diversity. This article con-tributes to the literature by investigating whether greater non-farm income helps in improving food consumption patterns and dietary diversity. Using a nationally representative panel data of rural India and an instrumental variable (IV) approach, we investigate this association and find that non-farm income increases expenditure on food products especially non-cereal prod-ucts, leading to greater household dietary diversity. This has crucial policy implications for nutrition transition and livelihood diversification, further contributing to the existing knowledge on agriculture-nutrition pathways. Acknowledegment:JEL Codes: O12, J48 #481 30 kets for food consumption which exposes households to the vagaries of price fluctuations and could potentially undermine their food security. Similarly, non-farm activities could shift resources such as land and labor, previously used to produce food, towards other expenditures. At the same time, higher income increases household access to greater quantity and better variety of 35 food.Against the above background, this paper is an empirical investigation into the relationship between household dietary diversity and non-farm income. We focus on India as the country of analysis where non-farm incomewhere the discourse on hunger and food security has been synonymous with poverty. There are subtle differences in what these terms imply for welfare. Poverty levels are a money metric which captures purchasing power. Dietary diversity, on the other hand, tells us about actual consumption and the ability of a household to acquire food, which is essential for human development. 50Also, while the link between non-farm income and poverty is straightforward, the nature of relationship between the non-farm income and dietary diversity is theoretically ambiguous.Pathways from agriculture to nutrition (36, 56,27,37), often tend over-55 look the importance of non-farm activities for nutrition, which is an issue of concern. Non-farm activities are a major source of income in rural areas. Income from non-farm sources account for about 35% of total rural income in Africa and around 50% in Asia and Latin America (29). In India, 88% of the rural households which are primarly engaged in agriculture and allied 60 activities, also undertake additional economic activity in the non-farm sector (17). In this paper, we provide evidence on the role played by income from the non-farm sector for food consumption and dietary diversity. Using a nationally representative panel data for the years 2004-05 and 2011-12 for rural India, we find that increase in non-farm income significantly improves 65 household diets, which is an intermediate pathway to improved nutritional outcomes. Given migration and remittan...

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We present the first ever large-scale snapshot of urban residential segregation in India at the neighborhood-scale. Our analysis from 147 largest cities in contemporary India shows how caste-based residential segregation is independent of city size (our sample includes all cities in India with at least 0.3 million residents in 2011). The extent of segregation in the largest metropolitan centers with over ten million residents closely tracks cities that are nearly two orders-of-magnitude smaller. We also show how residential segregation across a large swathe of urban India mirrors the spatial geometry of rural India. Our findings call into question one of the central normative promises of modernization in India and elsewhere --- the gradual withering of traditional ascriptive identities such as caste. Our paper also contributes to the emerging debates in urban segregation by developing an interdisciplinary framework for analytical and empirical operationalization of a neighborhood unit.

We present the first ever large-scale snapshot of urban residential segregation in India at the neighborhood-scale. Our analysis from 147 largest cities in contemporary India shows how caste-based residential segregation is independent of city size (our sample includes all cities in India with at least 0.3 million residents in 2011). The extent of segregation in the largest metropolitan centers with over ten million residents closely tracks cities that are nearly two orders-of-magnitude smaller. We also show how residential segregation across a large swathe of urban India mirrors the spatial geometry of rural India. Our findings call into question one of the central normative promises of modernization in India and elsewhere ---the gradual withering of traditional ascriptive identities such as caste. Our paper also contributes to the emerging debates in urban segregation by developing an interdisciplinary framework for analytical and empirical operationalization of a neighborhood unit.

This document contains all tables referenced in the "Robustness Checks" section of the main paper.

Urban India is characterised by a high degree of intra-city spatial inequality in the availability of public services like piped water and sewerage. We unpack the political channels that link residential segregation with access to public services. ‘Micro-segregation’, or neighbourhood residential sorting within a ward (the elementary administrative and political unit in urban India), enables segregated neighbourhoods to better organise and petition public services. Political competition further amplifies these demands from segregated neighbourhoods. The state’s response to such demand is, however, modulated by both in-group favouritism and outgroup discrimination. States’ ability to indulge in such favouritism and discrimination is in turn contingent on how the caste composition of a ward is different from that of the city as a whole –‘macro-segregation’. We combine large-scale quantitative analysis using neighbourhood-level national census data for all towns in India with at least 0.3 million residents, and multi-year qualitative fieldwork in Bengaluru, a metropolis of over 10 million residents, to delineate the interactions between these demand-side and supply-side channels. While macro-segregation is negatively associated with piped water and sewerage, micro-segregation has a positive association.