The study aimed at examining the microbial quality of restaurant salad and the water used for salad preparation and their role as a source of antibiotic resistant bacteria. Samples were collected from 15 different restaurants located in Chittagong city. The range of Total Viable Count was 1.86×10 4 to7.28×10 5 CFU/g and 1.60×10 4 CFU/ml to 4.38×10 5 CFU/ml for salad and water respectively. Total colifrm and fecal coliform count > 1100 CFU/100 ml were found in 73.33% of salad and 33.33% water samples. Salmonella spp was present in 46.67% of restaurants salad and water. Vibrio spp. was present in 66.67% of salad and 53.33% of water. A total of 102 isolates belonging to genus Vibrio, Salmonella and E. coli were subjected to antibiotic sensitivity test by disc diffusion method by using nine different types of antibiotic discs. Salmonella spp. from salad and water showed resistance against Amoxicillin (75%), Cephradine and Cephalexin (68.75%). 85.71% Vibrio spp. isolated from salad and water were resistant to Amoxicillin respectively. Multiple drug resistance was seen in 39 and 51 isolates of Salmonella and Vibrio isolates, respectively. The results suggest the necessity to follow the hygienic practices in salad preparation and salad might have an important role as a source of multiple antibiotic resistant bacteria.

Telemedicine (TM) services a process in which expert medical advice from afar is provided using electronic signals to transfer the medical data from one site to another. As a pilot project to assess the efficacy of TM in developing countries like India, a telemedicine center was set up at the main hospital of Mahakumbh mela--a grand religious fair, at Prayag, a city in north India. The daily reporting of the in-patient and outpatient cases at the fair revealed a surge of diarrhea cases among the pilgrims at the fair. This information was communicated to the referral center at Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences (SGPGIMS), which, with the help of its microbiology department, conducted microbiological examinations of stool samples and rectal swabs of patients along with various water samples. Vibrio cholerae was isolated in 22.6% (7/31) of the samples. This information was immediately relayed to the Main Hospital at the fair online, and then to the health authorities, who took strict and prompt measures to improve hygiene. Subsequently, the number of diarrhea cases decreased considerably in a matter of a few days, and thus an epidemic disaster was averted, which could have created havoc in such a large gathering.

Vibrio cholera survival in an aquatic environment depends on chitin utilization pathway that requires two factors, chitin binding protein and chitinases. The chitinases and the chitin utilization pathway are regulated by a two-component sensor histidine kinase ChiS in V. cholerae. In recent studies these two factors are also shown to be involved in V. cholerae pathogenesis. However, the role played by their upstream regulator ChiS in pathogenesis is yet to be known. In this study, we investigated the activation of ChiS in presence of mucin and its functional role in pathogenesis. We found ChiS is activated in mucin supplemented media. The isogenic chiS mutant (ChiS) showed less growth compared to the wild type strain (ChiS) in the presence of mucin supplemented media. The ChiS strain also showed highly retarded motility as well as mucin layer penetration in vitro. Our result also showed that ChiS was important for adherence and survival in HT-29 cell. These observations indicate that ChiS is activated in presence of intestinal mucin and subsequently switch on the chitin utilization pathway. In animal models, our results also supported the in vitro observation. We found reduced fluid accumulation and colonization during infection with ChiS strain. We also found ChiS mutant with reduced expression of ctxA, toxT and tcpA. The cumulative effect of these events made V. cholerae ChiS strain hypovirulent. Hence, we propose that ChiS plays a vital role in V. cholerae pathogenesis.

Vibrio cholerae, the Gram-negative facultative pathogen, resides in the aquatic environment and infects humans and causes diarrhoeagenic cholera. Although the environment differs drastically, V. cholerae thrives in both of these conditions aptly and chitinases play a vital role in their persistence and nutrient acquisition. Chitinases also play a role in V. cholerae pathogenesis. Chitinases and its downstream chitin utilization genes are regulated by sensor histidine kinase ChiS, which also plays a significant role in pathogenesis. Recent exploration suggests that CytR, a transcription factor of the LacI family in V. cholerae, also regulates chitinase secretion in environmental conditions. Since chitinases and chitinase regulator ChiS is involved in pathogenesis, CytR might also play a significant role in pathogenicity. However, the role of CytR in pathogenesis is yet to be known. This study explores the regulation of CytR on the activation of ChiS in the presence of mucin and its role in pathogenesis. Therefore, we created a CytR isogenic mutant strain of V. cholerae (CytR¯) and found considerably less β-hexosaminidase enzyme production, which is an indicator of ChiS activity. The CytR¯ strain greatly reduced the expression of chitinases chiA1 and chiA2 in mucin-supplemented media. Electron microscopy showed that the CytR¯ strain was aflagellate. The expression of flagellar-synthesis regulatory genes flrB, flrC and class III flagellar-synthesis genes were reduced in the CytR¯ strain. The isogenic CytR mutant showed less growth compared to the wild-type in mucin-supplemented media as well as demonstrated highly retarded motility and reduced mucin-layer penetration. The CytR mutant revealed decreased adherence to the HT-29 cell line. In animal models, reduced fluid accumulation and colonization were observed during infection with the CytR¯ strain due to reduced expression of ctxB, toxT and tcpA. Collectively these data suggest that CytR plays an important role in V. cholerae pathogenesis.

Thirty two strains of Salmonella were isolated from the samples collected from different poultry farm of Chittagong City. Isolated organisms were then subjected to antibiotic sensitivity test against seven different standard antibiotics. Most of the strains tested were resistant to four antibiotics; 93.75% were resistant to co-trimaxazole, while 90.62% were resistant to cephotaxime, nalidixic acid and Tetracycline each. In this study, ciprofloxacin and gentamicin were found to be the most potent drugs, (78.125%) were sensitive to Ciprofloxacin & (78.125%) were sensitive to gentamicin. Antimicrobial activity of bark extract of T. arjuna against 13 selected isolates of Salmonella were then determined. During the course of the anti-microbial screening it was found that among the 13 selected isolates, Salmonella (L3-B1), Salmonella (L5-X4), Salmonella (F-X2) and Salmonella (S2-B1) showed good sensitivity to crude extract of T. arjuna.

Microcapsules offer a wide variety of convenience in drug delivery when compared with conventional dosage forms. It is a unique carrier system for many pharmaceuticals. Microencapsulation is a potential process which prolongs the efficacy of drug significantly and improves patient compliance. This approach can alleviate the limitations of dose dumping, multiple dose inconvenience, kidney disease. This dosage form has potential advantages for elderly people who have to take multiple drugs. But microcapsule preparation needs method and formulation optimization and proper characterization. In this review paper, we have discussed the advantages, limitation of the microcapsules and microspheres. We have highlighted the applications of microcapsules and microspheres in the pharmaceutical industries. We also discussed the characterization process of microcapsules. Microcapsules open the era of individualized, targeted drug delivery with minimal side effects and greater convenience.

Background Gastroenteritis is a common infectious disease in children, which results in high mortality and morbidity, especially in resource-poor countries. This study presents the selected main gastroenteritis causing bacteria, including Escherichia coli O157, Salmonella and Shigella species delineating their prevalence and resistance pattern to the clinically used antibiotics. Results A total of 346 stool specimens from children of clinically suspected gastroenteritis below five years have been obtained, and bacterial pathogens were recovered using selective media, biochemical and serologic tests. We found that 35 (10%) of them were confirmed bacterial gastroenteritis (BGE) with either Escherichia coli O157 (14%), Salmonella spp. (43%), and Shigella spp. (43%). Nevertheless, the prevalence of E. coli O157, Salmonella spp., and Shigella spp. in this study were documented as 1.45%, 4.34%, and 4.34%, respectively. Moreover, 2 (40%) of E. coli O157, 4 (26.67%) of Salmonella spp., and 14 (93%) of the Shigella spp. were found as multidrug-resistant. Nonetheless, Shigella spp. isolates showed 100%, 87%, and 73% resistance to cotrimoxazole, ciprofloxacin, and azithromycin respectively, while E. coli O157 showed 80% resistance to cotrimoxazole and 60% to ciprofloxacin and azithromycin. On the contrary, cotrimoxazole, ciprofloxacin, azithromycin, and tetracycline were resistant in 40%, 47%, 27%, and 53% of Salmonella spp. isolates respectively. Conclusion These findings generate significant insights on the prevalence and antibiotic resistance of the three major gastroenteritis causing bacteria in the study area. Therefore, it will help physicians and policymakers selecting the right antibiotics in essential cases, particularly, reevaluation of recommending cotrimoxazole, ciprofloxacin, and azithromycin in the management of bacterial gastroenteritis.

Critical Quality Attributes (CQAs) is an important factor in Pharmaceutical development as it determines the strength, release of the API from SDFs, and stability of a pharmaceutical dosage form. Moreover, substandard and counterfeit drugs have been a major concern in recent days.Ciprofloxacin is a second-generation fluoroquinolone derivative that exerts its effects by inhibiting bacterial DNA gyrase (Topoisomerase II). It is used for the treatment of bacterial gastroenteritis, respiratory tract infections, controlling bronchitis and pneumonia caused by Gram negative bacteria. Ciprofloxacin has been listed in the World Health Organization (WHO) Model list of Essential Medicines. In recent decades, the pharmaceutical industry has been experiencing excellent growth in both local and international market.In our present study, we have analyzed theCritical Quality Attributes (CQAs) including length, thickness, friability, weight variation, hardness test and disintegration time of Ciprofloxacin tablet to study whether the ciprofloxacin immediate release tablets of different pharmaceutical companies available in the Bangladeshi market to assess whether they are compliant to BP or USP guidelines in respect of physical parameters. We have also performed statistical analysis and found that that all the tablets from different brands are within the BP or USP requirements. So, from the study, we reached the conclusion that the critical quality attributes for ciprofloxacin immediate release tablets of different pharmaceutical companies in Bangladesh ensure the appropriateness of their strength, purity, release of the API from SDFs, and stability.