Advances in the understanding of leishmaniasis progression indicate that cellular interactions more complex than the Th1/Th2 paradigm define the course of infection. Th17 cells are a crucial modulator of adaptive immunity against Leishmania parasites acting mainly on neutrophil recruitment and playing a dual role at the site of infection. This review describes the roles of both these cell types in linking innate defense responses to the establishment of specific immunity. We focus on the Th17–neutrophil interaction as a crucial component of anti-Leishmania immunity, and the clinical evolution of cutaneous or visceral leishmaniasis. To date, information obtained through experimental models and patient evaluations suggests that the influence of the presence of interleukin (IL)-17 (the main cytokine produced by Th17 cells) and neutrophils during Leishmania infections is strictly dependent on the tissue (skin or liver/spleen) and parasite species. Also, the time at which neutrophils are recruited, and the persistence of IL-17 in the infection microenvironment, may also be significant. A clearer understanding of these interactions will enable better measurement of the influence of IL-17 and its regulators, and contribute to the identification of disease/resistance biomarkers.

Leishmaniases are caused by obligate intracellular protozoan parasites of the genus Leishmania. They cause a spectrum of diseases, most notably visceral (VL), cutaneous (CL), and mucosal (ML) leishmaniasis, which affect millions of people around the world, each year. Despite scientific advances, leishmaniases cases are expanding, constituting an important public health problem. Immunological and molecular diagnostic tools have been increasingly applied for the early detection of these parasitic infections, since the existence of limitations in clinical and parasitological examinations may provide false results, thus interfering in epidemiological research and diseases control. Although there is a great diversity of available immunological assays, important common deficiencies persist, which explains the current exploration of the molecular biology in research fields, especially the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and its variants, such as real-time quantitative PCR. However, in the last years, significant results have also been reached inside of immunological context (especially by Flow Cytometry), for humans and dogs, demonstrated by research works of the New and Old worlds. In spite of their potential to clarify and minimize the present global situation of the diseases, the implementation of molecular or immunological innovative reference assays for VL and CL at health services is still a challenge due to several reasons, including lack of standardization among laboratories and structural concerns. In this article we bring classical and current information about technological advances for the immunological and molecular leishmaniases diagnosis, their features, and applications.

BackgroundMolecular biological methods have become increasingly relevant to the diagnosis and control of infectious diseases, such as leishmaniasis. Since various factors may affect the sensitivity of PCR assays, including DNA yield and purity, an optimal extraction method is pivotal. Losses of a parasite’s DNA during extraction may significantly impair its detection by PCR and lead to false-negative results. This study proposes a triplex PCR assay targeting the parasite’s DNA, an external control (pUC18) and an internal control (G3PD) for accurate diagnosis of leishmaniasis.ResultsTwo primer pairs were designed to detect the plasmid pUC18 and a triplex PCR assay targeting the Leishmania braziliensis kinetoplast DNA, the external control and the internal control was standardized. The triplex PCR assay was assessed for its ability to detect the three target DNA fragments simultaneously.PCR products from pUC18 DNA resulted in bands of 368 (P1) and 316 (P2) base pairs (bp). The triplex PCR optimized with the chosen external control system (P1) allowed the simultaneous detection of the internal control (G3PD – 567 bp) as well as of small quantities (10 pg) of the target parasite’s DNA, detected by amplification of a 138 bp product.ConclusionsThe new tool standardized herein enables a more reliable interpretation of PCR results, mainly by contributing to quality assurance of leishmaniasis diagnosis. Furthermore, after simple standardization steps, this protocol could be applied to the diagnosis of other infectious diseases in reference laboratories. This triplex PCR enables the assessment of small losses during the DNA extraction process, problems concerning DNA degradation (sample quality) and the detection of L. braziliensis kDNA.

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Early detection of leishmaniases and prompt institution of treatment are paramount for individuals and communities affected by these diseases. To overcome the remaining limitations inherent to molecular methods currently used and to ensure the accuracy of results in leishmaniases diagnosis, two triplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays with quality controls for the reactions were developed. Validity indicators were assessed in 186 dog blood samples from endemic areas in Brazil. The level of agreement between the new tools and their singleplex protocols was assessed by kappa analysis. The triplex PCR for visceral leishmaniasis showed sensitivity (S) = 78.68 %, specificity (E) = 85.29 %, and efficiency (e) = 81.05 %. The cutaneous leishmaniasis protocol showed S = 97.29 %, E = 79.16 %, and e = 90.16 %. Both protocols showed good agreement with gold standards. These new tools enable, in a single reaction, the diagnosis of the diseases and the evaluation of the sample quality and DNA extraction process, thus reducing the cost of reagents and avoiding the eventual need for collecting a second sample.

The new duplex VL qPCR protocol indicated good potential for the accurate, fast, and reliable detection of L. infantum DNA, when applied as a complement to the classical diagnostic tools already available, especially in health or research reference centers.

American cutaneous leishmaniasis (ACL) is a disease caused by different species of Leishmania protozoa, Leishmania braziliensis being the main species found in Brazil. In this study, two rural areas in Pernambuco, northeastern Brazil, where ACL is endemic, were selected. Genomic DNA was extracted from canine ectoparasites (ticks, fleas, and lice) and tested using a conventional PCR and a quantitative real time PCR. A total of 117 ectoparasites were collected, being 50 (42.74%) of them positive for L. braziliensis (in at least one PCR protocol), with a mean parasite load of 14.14 fg/μL. Furthermore, 46 (92.00%) positive ectoparasites were collected from positive dogs and 4 (8.00%) from negative ones. This study reports the detection of L. braziliensis DNA in ectoparasites, but does not prove their vector competence. Certainly, experimental transmission studies are necessary to assess their role, if any, in the transmission of Leishmania parasites to dogs.

The tests demonstrate nutritional restriction during critical periods of development, although nutritional supplementation may compromise defense patterns in adulthood in a timely manner, preserving distinct signaling mechanism, so that the individual does not become widely vulnerable to infections by opportunistic pathogens.