Carbohydrates are known to mediate a large number of biological and pathological events. Small and macromolecules capable of carbohydrate recognition have great potentials as research tools, diagnostics, vectors for targeted delivery of therapeutic and imaging agents, and therapeutic agents. However, this potential is far from being realized. One key issue is the difficulty in the development of "binders" capable of specific recognition of carbohydrates of biological relevance. This review discusses systematically the general approaches that are available in developing carbohydrate sensors and "binders/receptors," and their applications. The focus is on discoveries during the last five years.

Phosphodiesterase 4 catalyzes the hydrolysis of cyclic AMP and is a target for the development of anti-inflammatory agents. We have designed and synthesized a series of phenyl alkyl ketones as PDE4 inhibitors. Among them, 13 compounds were identified as having submicromolar IC50 values. The most potent compounds have IC50 values of in the mid- to low-nanomolar range. Compound 5v also showed preference for PDE4 with selectivity of >2000-fold over PDE7, PDE9, PDE2, and PDE5. Docking of 5v, 5zf, and 5za into the binding pocket of the PDE4 catalytic domain revealed a similar binding profile to PDE4 with rolipram except that the fluorine atoms of the difluoromethyl groups of 5v, 5za, and 5zf are within a reasonable range for hydrogen bond formation with the amide hydrogen of Thr 333 and the long alkyl chain bears additional van der Waals interactions with His 160, Asp 318, and Tyr 159.

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Boronic acids that change fluorescent properties upon sugar binding are very important reporter units for the development of small molecule lectin mimics (boronolectins). Aimed at developing long wavelength fluorescent boronic acid reporter compounds, we have designed and synthesized a series of boronic acid analogs 2a-d with an extended π conjugation. Such designs are based on earlier fluorescent boronic acids that change fluorescent properties upon sugar binding. Compared with the corresponding parent chromophores, these new compounds with extended conjugations show longer excitation and emission wavelengths as designed. The patterns of fluorescent changes for the new compounds are also different from that of the corresponding parent compounds.

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