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The long-term effects of conservation management practices on greenhouse gas fluxes from tropical/subtropical croplands remain to be uncertain. Using both manual and automatic sampling chambers, we measured N 2 O and CH 4 fluxes at a long-term experimental site (1968-present) in Queensland, Australia from 2006 to 2009. Annual net greenhouse gas fluxes (NGGF) were calculated from the 3-year mean N 2 O and CH 4 fluxes and the long-term soil organic carbon changes. N 2 O emissions exhibited clear daily, seasonal and interannual variations, highlighting the importance of whole-year measurement over multiple years for obtaining temporally representative annual emissions. Averaged over 3 years, annual N 2 O emissions from the unfertilized and fertilized soils (90 kg N ha À1 yr À1 as urea) amounted to 138 and 902 g N ha À1 , respectively. The average annual N 2 O emissions from the fertilized soil were 388 g N ha À1 lower under no-till (NT) than under conventional tillage (CT) and 259 g N ha À1 higher under stubble retention (SR) than under stubble burning (SB). Annual N 2 O emissions from the unfertilized soil were similar between the contrasting tillage and stubble management practices. The average emission factors of fertilizer N were 0.91%, 1.20%, 0.52% and 0.77% for the CT-SB, CT-SR, NT-SB and NT-SR treatments, respectively. Annual CH 4 fluxes from the soil were very small (À200-300 g CH 4 ha À1 yr À1 ) with no significant difference between treatments. The NGGF were 277-350 kg CO 2 -e ha À1 yr À1 for the unfertilized treatments and 401-710 kg CO 2 -e ha À1 yr À1 for the fertilized treatments. Among the fertilized treatments, N 2 O emissions accounted for 52-97% of NGGF and NT-SR resulted in the lowest NGGF (401 kg CO 2 -e ha À1 yr À1 or 140 kg CO 2 -e t À1 grain). Therefore, NT-SR with improved N fertilizer management practices was considered the most promising management regime for simultaneously achieving maximal yield and minimal NGGF.

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Aggregation often provides physical protection and stabilisation of soil organic carbon (C). No tillage (NT) coupled with stubble retention (SR) and nitrogen (N) fertiliser application (90 N, 90 kg N ha−1 application) can help improve soil aggregation. However, information is lacking on the effect of long‐term NT, SR and N fertiliser (NT, SR + N) application on soil aggregation and C distribution in different aggregates in vertisols. We analysed the soil samples collected from 0‐ to 30‐cm depth from a long‐term (47 years) experiment for soil aggregation and aggregate‐associated C and N. This long‐term field experiment originally consisted of 12 treatments, having plot size of 61·9 × 6·4 m, and these plots were arranged in a randomised block design with four replications, covering an area of 1·9 ha. Soil organic C concentrations as well as stocks were significantly higher under the treatment of NT, SR + N only in 0–10 cm compared with other treatments such as conventional tillage, stubble burning + 0 N (no N application) and conventional tillage, SR + 0 N. Mineral‐associated organic C (MOC) of <0·053 mm was 5–12 times higher (r = 0·68, p < 0·05, n = 32) compared with particulate organic C (POC) (>0·053 mm) in the 0‐ to 30‐cm layer. We found that NT, SR + N treatment had a positive impact on soil aggregation, as measured by the mean weight diameter (MWD) through wet sieving procedure, but only in the top 0‐ to 10‐cm depth. MWD had significant positive correlation with water stable aggregates (r = 0·67, p < 0·05). Unlike MWD, water stable aggregates were not affected by tillage and stubble management. Large macroaggregates (>2 mm) had significantly higher organic C and N concentrations than small macroaggregates (0·25–2 mm) or microaggregates (0·053–0·25 mm). We also found that N application had a significant effect on MWD and soil organic C in vertisols. It is evident that better soil aggregation was recorded under NTSR90N could have a positive influence on soil C sequestration. Our results further highlight the importance of soil aggregation and aggregate‐associated C in relation to C sequestration. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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Annual cumulative nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from soil have historically been calculated from intermittent data measured manually via the static chamber method. The temporal variability in emissions, both diurnally and between days, introduces uncertainty into the up-scaling of static chamber data. This study assessed the most appropriate time of the day to sample and the best sampling frequency to ensure reliable estimates of annual cumulative emissions. Sub-daily N2O emissions were measured using automatic gas sampling chambers over three years in a sub-tropical cereal crop system. The sub-daily dataset was divided into eight time periods per day to assess the best sampling time of the day. Daily mean N2O emissions were subsampled from the dataset to simulate different sampling frequencies, including pre-set and rainfall-based scenarios. Annual cumulative N2O emissions were calculated for these scenarios and compared to the 'actual' annual cumulative emissions. The results demonstrated that manual sampling between mid-morning (09:00) and midday (12:00), and late evening (21:00) and midnight (24:00) best approximated the daily mean N2O emission. Factoring in the need to sample during daylight hours, gas sampling from mid-morning to midday was the most appropriate sampling time. Overall, triweekly sampling provided the most accurate estimate (± 4% error) of annual cumulative N2O emissions, but was undesirable due to its labour intensive high sampling frequency. Weekly sampling with triweekly sampling in the two weeks following rainfall events was the most efficient sampling schedule, as it had similar accuracy (± 5% error) to the triweekly sampling, the smallest variability in outcomes and approximately half the sampling times of triweekly sampling. Inter-annual rainfall variability affected the accuracy and variability of estimations of annual cumulative emissions, but did not affect the overall trends in sampling frequency accuracy. This study demonstrated that intermittent samplings are capable of estimating the annual cumulative N2O emissions satisfactorily when timed appropriately.

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15Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from soil are often measured using the manual static chamber 16 method. Manual gas sampling is labour intensive, so a minimal sampling frequency that maintains