ABSTRACT. The predator avoidance behaviour of a free-ranging group of buffy-headed marmosets, Callithrixflaviceps, was recorded in detail during the course of a long-term study of behavioural ecology at the Fazenda Montes Claros, southeastern Brazil. Four distinct patterns of predator avoidance behaviour, each with specific vocalisations, were recognised and are described here. The selection and use of sleeping sites by the study group are also described. An analysis of the records indicates that these small monkeys are generally most vulnerable to predation by aerial raptors. Variations in the frequency of alarm calls also indicate that the marmosets tend to be more vigilant at higher levels in the forest and when the leaf cover is less extensive. The implications of group size and social structure for both the evolution and the efficacy of the anti-predator behaviour of marmosets are also discussed.

Field studies of callitrichid species have reported a surprising degree of variation in the composition of social groups, some of which has been interpreted as evidence of ‘cooperative polyandry’ in recent reviews. The majority of the evidence is, however, derived from studies of only one of the four callitrichid genera, Saguinus. While most features of the morphology and behaviour of all callitrichid species are broadly similar, studies of marmosets (Callithrix spp. and Cebuella pygmaea) indicate that important ecological differences exist between genera. These differences appear, in turn, to be reflected in marked contrasts in both social organisation and mating systems. A re-evaluation of the social organisation of the callitrichids, based on differences in their ecological adaptations, is presented.

Summary1. Geographic gradients in the species richness of non-human primates have traditionally been attributed to the variation in forest productivity (related to precipitation levels), although an all-inclusive, global-scale analysis has never been conducted. 2. We perform a more comprehensive test on the role of precipitation and biomass production and propose an alternative hypothesis -the variation in vertical structure of forest habitats as measured by forest canopy height -in determining primate species richness on a global scale. 3. Considering the potential causal relationships among precipitation, productivity and forest structure, we arranged these variables within a path framework to assess their direct and indirect associations with the pattern of primate species richness using structural equation modelling. The analysis also accounted for the influence of spatial autocorrelation in the relationships and assessed possible historical differences among biogeographical regions. 4. The path coefficients indicate that forest canopy height (used as a proxy for vertical forest structure) is a better predictor of primate species richness than either precipitation or productivity on both global and continental scales. The only exception was Asia, where precipitation prevailed, albeit independently from productivity or forest structure. The influence of spatially structured processes varied markedly among biogeographical regions. 5. Our results challenge the traditional rainfall-based viewpoint in favour of forest distribution and structure as primary drivers of primate species richness, which aggregate potential effects from both climatic factors and habitat complexity. These findings may support predictions of the impact of forest removal on primate species richness.

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The endangered but poorly studied southern bearded saki, Chiropotes satanas, faces extremes of habitat fragmentation throughout its geographic range in eastern Amazonia. This article focuses on the behavior of the members of two groups--a large one (30-34 members) in continuous forest (home range=69 ha) and a much smaller one (7 members) on a 17-ha man-made island--at the Tucuruí Reservoir on the Tocantins River. Quantitative behavioral data were collected through scan and all-events sampling. Both groups were characterized by the fission-fusion pattern of social organization typical of the genus and relatively high rates of traveling and feeding, also characteristic of the genus. However, the island group spent significantly more time resting and significantly less traveling than the mainland group, presumably as a function of its much smaller home range. Despite resting more, island group members engaged in significantly less social interaction, possibly because of the much smaller size of this group (which also affected visibility), or other factors, such as nutritional stress. Affiliative associations of males were a mainstay of social behavior in both groups and interspecific associations with capuchins (Cebus apella) and squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) were relatively common, especially in the mainland group. Overall, the island group presented a relatively reduced behavioral repertoire, apparently reflecting factors such as group size and the size and quality of its home range.

With its long history of colonization, eastern Amazonia has the highest population density in Brazilian Amazonia and represents the typical pattern of recent human occupation. Between 1991 and1995, we surveyed the mammalian fauna at five sites, representing different degrees of human disturbance. We used line transects (1511 km surveyed) to describe differences in diversity and abundance at each site and to evaluate the effects of environmental factors. Twenty-two of the expected 44 species were recorded during surveys, but no more than 18 were recorded at any one site, and only 3 species were observed at all five sites. Despite a minimum transect length of 202 km, most species were recorded relatively infrequently at all sites, although overall sighting rates at different sites varied by more than 100%. Between-site differences were even more pronounced when we compared specific groups (e.g., arboreal, terrestrial, game, nongame), reflecting the differential effects of factors such as hunting, logging, and forest clearing. In general terms, species diversity, abundance, total biomass, and mean biomass all tended to decrease with increasing human disturbance. Two more specific patterns were also distinguished: decreasing abundance and biomass of game species with increasing hunting pressure and increasing abundance of nongame species with increasing forest disturbance. Intense hunting pressure alone may have deleterious short-term effects on abundance, but not necessarily on diversity, whereas prolonged hunting pressure, combined with forest clearing, results in marked distortions in the mammalian community. Overall, the study emphasizes the relative paucity of the mammalian fauna of eastern Amazonia, in terms of both species diversity and abundance, and its vulnerability to the ongoing process of human colonization in the region. Efectos de la Colonización Humana en la Abundancia y Diversidad de Mamíferos en la Zona Oriental del Amazonas BrasileñoResumen: Con su larga historia de colonización, la zona oriental del Amazonas tiene la población más densa de la región del Amazonas brasileño y representa el patrón típico de ocupación humana reciente. Entre 1991 y 1995 muestreamos la fauna de mamíferos en cinco sitios representativos de diferentes grados de perturbación humana. Utilizamos transectos en línea (1511 km muestreados) para describir las diferencias en diversidad y abundancia en cada sitio y para evaluar los efectos de los factores ambientales. Veintidós de las 44 especies esperadas fueron observadas durante los muestreos, pero no más de 18 fueron observadas en un solo sitio, y solo tres especies fueron observadas en los cinco sitios. No obstante la longitud mínima de transecto de 202 km, la mayoría de las especies fueron relativamente poco frecuentes en todos los sitios, pese a que las tasas de avistamiento en diferentes sitios varió en más de un 100%. Las diferencias entre sitios fueron aún mas pronunciadas cuando se compararon grupos de especies (por ejemplo, arbóreas, terrestres, cinegéticas, no cinegé...

With its long history of colonization, eastern Amazonia has the highest population density in Brazilian Amazonia and represents the typical pattern of recent human occupation. Between 1991 and1995, we surveyed the mammalian fauna at five sites, representing different degrees of human disturbance. We used line transects (1511 km surveyed) to describe differences in diversity and abundance at each site and to evaluate the effects of environmental factors. Twenty-two of the expected 44 species were recorded during surveys, but no more than 18 were recorded at any one site, and only 3 species were observed at all five sites. Despite a minimum transect length of 202 km, most species were recorded relatively infrequently at all sites, although overall sighting rates at different sites varied by more than 100%. Between-site differences were even more pronounced when we compared specific groups (e.g., arboreal, terrestrial, game, nongame), reflecting the differential effects of factors such as hunting, logging, and forest clearing. In general terms, species diversity, abundance, total biomass, and mean biomass all tended to decrease with increasing human disturbance. Two more specific patterns were also distinguished: decreasing abundance and biomass of game species with increasing hunting pressure and increasing abundance of nongame species with increasing forest disturbance. Intense hunting pressure alone may have deleterious short-term effects on abundance, but not necessarily on diversity, whereas prolonged hunting pressure, combined with forest clearing, results in marked distortions in the mammalian community. Overall, the study emphasizes the relative paucity of the mammalian fauna of eastern Amazonia, in terms of both species diversity and abundance, and its vulnerability to the ongoing process of human colonization in the region. Efectos de la Colonización Humana en la Abundancia y Diversidad de Mamíferos en la Zona Oriental del Amazonas BrasileñoResumen: Con su larga historia de colonización, la zona oriental del Amazonas tiene la población más densa de la región del Amazonas brasileño y representa el patrón típico de ocupación humana reciente. Entre 1991 y 1995 muestreamos la fauna de mamíferos en cinco sitios representativos de diferentes grados de perturbación humana. Utilizamos transectos en línea (1511 km muestreados) para describir las diferencias en diversidad y abundancia en cada sitio y para evaluar los efectos de los factores ambientales. Veintidós de las 44 especies esperadas fueron observadas durante los muestreos, pero no más de 18 fueron observadas en un solo sitio, y solo tres especies fueron observadas en los cinco sitios. No obstante la longitud mínima de transecto de 202 km, la mayoría de las especies fueron relativamente poco frecuentes en todos los sitios, pese a que las tasas de avistamiento en diferentes sitios varió en más de un 100%. Las diferencias entre sitios fueron aún mas pronunciadas cuando se compararon grupos de especies (por ejemplo, arbóreas, terrestres, cinegéticas, no cinegé...