Evidence suggests that males and females differ with respect to the perception and experience of pain. Much of this work focuses on biological factors, yet it is also acknowledged that psychosocial issues are important. Within humans, socially and culturally constructed meanings of being and acting as a man or a woman should help us understand sex-related differences in pain. However, such an approach has not been widely adopted, partly because of problems conveying sex and gender concepts. We argue here for an assimilation of gender studies concepts into pain research as a means of developing our understanding of the psychosocial influences on pain in men and women. In order to bridge the gap between gender studies and pain, we draw on theoretical developments in such gender concepts, and illustrate their application to pain. We make use of Doise's [Doise W. Levels of explanation in social psychology [Mapstone E, Trans.]. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press. 1986 [original work published 1982]] meta-theoretical model of levels of explanation in social psychology to show how gender may be conceptualized at an intra-individual, situational, positional and ideological level of analysis. We then selectively review existing gender and pain research using these different levels of explanation. In doing so we also highlight that by considering the gender conceptualizations underpinning such studies we are able to point to directions for future research. We conclude by arguing that this approach opens up a new avenue for pain researchers, which we hope will further our understanding of this interesting phenomena.

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Conclusions: These preliminary findings suggest that the FSSADI_PAIN is an innovative and promising measure of perceived formal social support adapted to pain-related contexts.

Living with chronic pain may be a threatening experience to one's own gender identity. Findings suggest that the presence of chronic pain does not allow individuals to achieve the most valued standards of being male or female in our societies. Such contention, however, has not yet been empirically supported. Therefore, our goal was to explore laypeople's and nurses' perceptions of the man/woman with chronic low-back pain (CLBP) as compared to the typical man/woman, respectively. Three hundred and sixteen laypeople (52.8% women) and 161 nurses (54% women) participated in this study. Half of the participants were presented with a written vignette depicting a man/woman with CLBP, followed by a list of 33 traits of the masculine and feminine stereotypes. Participants evaluated the extent to which each trait fit their image of the man/woman with CLBP. The other half of the participants described the image people in general had of the typical man/woman using the same list of traits. This study consisted on a quasi-experimental design, 2 (character's sex)x2 (type of character)x2 (participant's sex)x2 (health-care training). Results have generally supported our hypotheses. Both laypeople and nurses perceived: (1) the man with CLBP as having less masculinity and more femininity-related traits than the typical man; (2) the woman with CLBP as having less femininity and more masculinity-related traits than the typical woman; and (3) the man and woman with CLBP as more similar to each other than the typical man/woman. Issues on gender identity conflicts in CP patients are discussed.

Adults with chronic pain cite social support (SS) as an important resource. Research has mostly focused on general SS or pain-specific solicitousness, resulting in a limited understanding of the role of SS in pain experiences. Drawing on SS theoretical models, this review aimed to understand how pain-related SS has been conceptualized and measured and how its relationship with pain experiences has been investigated. Arksey and O'Malley scoping review framework guided the study. A database search (2000-2015) was conducted in PsycINFO, CINAHL, MEDLINE, and EMBASE using a combination of subject headings/keywords on pain and SS; 3864 citations were screened; 101 full texts were assessed for eligibility; references of 52 papers were hand searched. Fifty-three studies were included. Most studies were either a-theoretical or drew upon the operant conditioning model. There are several self-report measures and observational systems to operationalize pain-related SS. However, the Multidimensional Pain Inventory remains the most often used, accounting for the centrality of the concept of solicitousness in the literature. Most studies focused on individuals with chronic pain self-report of spousal pain-related SS and investigated its main effects on pain outcomes. Only a minority investigated the role of pain SS within the stress and coping process (as a buffer or mediator). Little is known about mediating pathways, contextual modulation of the effectiveness of SS exchanges, and there are practically no SS-based intervention studies. Drawing on general SS models, the main gaps in pain-related SS research are discussed and research directions for moving this literature beyond solicitousness are proposed.

Objectives. Class-based dehumanization in health is poorly investigated. Beliefs about social class are often shared across cultures, with people of lower socio-economic status (SES) being typically dehumanized. This study specifically examined how nurses' perceptions of pain patients' SES were associated with (more or less) dehumanizing inferences about their pain and different treatment recommendations.Design. Sequential mixed methods including Similitude Analysis (statistical analysis of qualitative data) and a Thematic Analysis. Fifty female nurses watched short videos of two white women of different SES (low vs. middle) and similar levels of pain behaviours. Afterwards, nurses were asked to complete (1) a Free Association Task (associating characteristics and a profession to the women) and (2) a Story-Completion Task (writing a story describing women's lives, pain, and recommending treatments). Data were analysed with Similitude and Thematic Analysis.Results. The women's SES was recognized, linked to distinct professions, and associated with distinct inferences. The middle-SES woman was depicted with both Uniquely Human (e.g., autonomous) and Human Nature (e.g., communicative) traits, positive future prospects, and competence to self-manage pain. The low-SES woman was associated with Human Nature traits (hard-working) but denied Uniquely Human traits associated with competence; she was imagined as passive towards pain, with poor future prospects and referred to psychoeducation.Conclusion. Findings reveal the role of class-based cultural belief systems in pain care, showing how nurses' recognition of low SES is associated with dehumanizing inferences and recommendations, which may contribute to reproducing pain care disparities. Theoretical implications of these findings for social and health psychology are drawn.

factor analyses showed a good fit for a two-factor structure: 1) PPA (n=4 items;α=.89); 2) PPD(n= 4 items;α=.85). The revised FSSADI_PAIN showed good content, discriminant and criterionrelated validity; it discriminated the PSS of male and female older adults, and also of elders with different levels of physical functioning.In conclusion, the revised FSSADI_PAIN is an innovative, valid and reliable tool that allows us to assess two important functions of PSS, which may play a relevant role in the prevention and reduction of pain-related physical disability and functional dependence among institutionalized older adults.Perspective: This paper presents a revised version of the FSSADI_PAIN that assesses elders' perceived promotion of functional autonomy/dependence as two independent functions of perceived social support. This measure may contribute to future research on the role of close interpersonal contexts on the promotion of active ageing among elders with (chronic) pain.

Background: Chronic pain is prevalent among older adults and is usually associated with high levels of functional disability. Social support for the promotion of functional autonomy and dependence has been associated with pain-related disability and self-reported physical functioning.Nevertheless, these relationships need further inquiry.Aims: Our aims were to investigate: (1) the relationship between perceived promotion of autonomy/dependence and pain-related disability and (2) the extent to which self-reported physical functioning mediated these relationships. Results: Higher levels of perceived promotion of autonomy were associated with lower pain-related disability; this relationship was partially mediated by self-reported physical functioning (B=-.767, p<.001 decreasing to B'=-.485, p<.01). Higher perceived promotion of dependence was associated with higher pain-related disability; this effect was also partially accounted for by self-reported physical functioning (B=.889, p<.01 decreasing to B'=.597, p<.05).Conclusion: These results highlight the importance of perceived promotion of autonomy and dependence for managing older adults' experience of chronic pain.