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Background Soil-transmitted helminths (STH) are common in low and middle income countries where there is lack of access to clean water and sanitation. Effective diagnosis and treatment are essential for the control of STH infections. However, among STH parasites, Strongyloides stercoralis is the most neglected species, both in diagnostics and control strategies. Diagnostic methods cover different approaches, each with different sensitivities and specificities, such as serology, molecular techniques and microscopy based techniques. Of the later, the Baermann technique is the most commonly used procedure. In the literature, several ways have been described to perform the Baermann method, which illustrates the overall lack of a ‘(gold) reference standard’ method for the diagnosis of S. stercoralis infection. In this study we have evaluated the performance of three Baermann techniques in order to improve the reference standard for the microscopic diagnosis of S. stercoralis infection thereby facilitating individual case detection, mapping of the disease and proper evaluation of treatment responses. Methods/Principal findings A community based cross sectional study was conducted at Zenzelima, Bahir Dar Zuria Ethiopia. A total of 437 stool samples were collected and analyzed by the following procedures: conventional Baermann (CB), modified Baermann (MB), and modified Baermann with charcoal pre-incubation (MBCI). The diagnostic sensitivity and Negative Predictive Value (NPV) of each technique was calculated using the combination of all the three techniques as a composite reference standard. Our result indicated that larvae of S. stercoralis were detected in 151 (34.6%) stool samples. The prevalence of S. stercoralis infection based on the three diagnostic methods was 9.6%, 8.0%, and 31.3% by CB, MB, and MBCI respectively. The sensitivity and NPV for CB, MB, and MBCI were 26.7% and 70.8%, 22.1% and 69.6%, and 87.0% and 93.2%, respectively. The MBCI showed significant difference (P- value = <0.001) in the sensitivity and NPV values when compared with CB and MB values. The agreement between CB, MB, and MBCI with the composite reference standard was 31.8%, 26.7%, 89.6%, respectively. Conclusion/Significance Our results suggest the superior performance of MBCI. It is relatively easy to implement, simple to perform and comparatively cheaper. The CB is by far the commonly used method in routine diagnostic although this technique significantly underestimates the true burden of the disease and thereby contributing to the exclusion of S. stercoralis from the control strategies. Therefore, MBCI is recommended as a routine microscopy-based diagnostic test for S. stercoralis infection, particularly in settings where molecular procedures are not available.

Article InformationIn Ethiopia, access to improved water supply and sanitation was estimated at 38% and 12% respectively. Three-forth of the health problems of children in Ethiopia are communicable diseases due to polluted water and improper water handling practices. Thus, this study was conducted to assess the microbiological quality of drinking water sources in rural communities of Dire Dawa Administrative Council (Adada Peasant Association). A cross-sectional study was conducted from February 2011 to May 2011. Microbiological water quality parameters were analyzed using the membrane filtration method. Water analysis demonstrated that all water sources in the study area were contaminated with total coliforms and fecal coliform. The fact that, about 83.34% of the water sample was positive for indicator bacteria shown that the three selected Peasant Associations had risk of contamination. High concentration of microbiological indicators in all water sources of this study area have demonstrated the presence of pathogenic organisms which constitute a threat to anyone consuming or in contact with these waters. The majority of the drinking water sources is either of unacceptable quality or grossly polluted. Regular quality control mechanisms need to be in place to ensure safety of drinking water.

Introduction: The presence of antimicrobial-resistant Salmonella in poultry and poultry products, including eggs, is a global public health concern. This study aimed to estimate the levels and patterns of antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella from chicken eggs and assess consumers' raw egg consumption and farmers' handling practices. Methodology: A total of 300 egg samples were collected from Haramaya open market (n = 150) and Haramaya University poultry farm (n = 150) in Ethiopia. Questionnaires were administered to egg sellers and buyers. A sterile cotton swab was used to sample the surface of eggs. The shells were sterilized and the egg content sampled. Isolation was done using the conventional methods for the detection of Salmonella, following the standard guidelines from ISO 6579. Sensitivity to 12 selected antibiotics was tested following the procedure of the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Results: A level of 5.3% was observed among eggs shells from the open market and 0% among egg shells from the poultry farm, for an overall level of 2.7%. There was a significant difference (p = 0.004) between the prevalence of Salmonella spp. in sample site and sample type. Of the antimicrobials tested, Salmonella isolates were all resistant to erythromycin and clindamycin. Isolates were sensitive to ciprofloxacin (100%) and chloramphenicol (87.5%). All isolates were resistant to multiple antibiotics. One-third of the consumers were found to have eaten raw eggs for perceived medicinal values. Conclusion: To minimize the potential contamination of eggs by pathogens, the eggs should be properly handled, transported, and stored.

Bovine cysticercosis causing damage to the beef industry is closely linked to human taeniasis due to Taenia saginata. In African countries, Taenia spp. from wildlife are also involved as possible sources of infections in livestock. To identify the aetiological agents of bovine cysticercosis in Ethiopia, cysticerci were collected from 41 cattle slaughtered in the eastern and central areas during 2010-2012. A single cysticercus per animal was subjected to the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based DNA sequencing of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 gene, and the resultant sequence was compared with those of members of the genus Taenia. Although 38 out of 41 cysticerci (92.7%) were identified as T. saginata, three samples (7.3%) showed the hitherto unknown sequences of Taenia sp., which is distantly related to Taenia solium, Taenia arctos and Taenia ovis. Old literatures suggest it to be Taenia hyaenae, but morphological identification of species could not be completed by observing only the larval samples.

Article InformationIn Ethiopia, access to improved water supply and sanitation was estimated at 38% and 12% respectively. Three-forth of the health problems of children in Ethiopia are communicable diseases due to polluted water and improper water handling practices. Thus, this study was conducted to assess the bacteriological quality of drinking water sources in Dire Dawa Surrounding area. The study was conducted from February 2011 to May 2011. A total of 90 water samples from different water sources (-protected and unprotected well; protected and unprotected spring; and tap water) and bacteriological water quality parameters were analyzed using the membrane filtration method. Water analysis demonstrated that all water sources in the study areas were contaminated with total coliforms, fecal coliform and parasites. The average counts of TC were in the range of 1.5-133.05CFU/100ml whereas the average counts of FC were found to be 0.34-54CFU/100ml. In all samples, the TC, FC was above the recommended limit of WHOM for drinking water quality (1-10CFU/100ml for TC, 0CFU/100ml for FC. The fact that, about 83.34% of the water sample was positive for indicator bacteria shown that the three selected PA had risk of contamination in the three selected PAs had high risk of microbiological water quality parameters. High concentration of microbiological indicators in all water sources of this study area may demonstrated the presence of pathogenic organisms which constitute a threat to anyone consuming or in contact with these waters. This is due to lack of good water treatment, improper water handling practices and lack of the protection of the water sources. Consequently, protection of water sources accompanied by sanitation and hygiene promotion programs can improve the water quality of rural water sources, where disinfection is not feasible.