African farmers diversify their livelihood strategies through on-farm and off-farm activities. We cluster households according to similar livelihood diversification strategies and explore the implications for income levels and sustainable soil management practices. Five main livelihood diversification strategies were being pursued. Households with off-farm income, and those pursuing higher return agricultural activities earned more than twice as much as the lowest income groups, which were the least diversified. They also were more likely to implement soil conservation measures. Policies aimed at improving household well-being need to take into account a wide range of household asset endowments and livelihood strategies being pursued. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Marketing, transporting, processing, and consuming dairy products contribute significantly to the livelihoods of many poor Kenya households. This study analyses the impact of recent research supporting policy changes to liberalize informal milk markets. The study found that behavioural changes in dairy sector participants arising from the research evidence-supported policy and regulatory changes led to an average 9% reduction in milk marketing margins, and a significant increase in the number of licensed small-scale milk vendors. A $10 million research and outreach effort over 8 years resulted in estimated total benefits that continue to be realized of at least 2.17 billion ($X) each year, largely captured by consumers, producers, and milk vendors. The net present value of this policy-oriented research investment was estimated to be US$ 230 million.

Purpose In societies with strong presence of Islam, Islamic instruments with more scope for fairness and equity can be innovatively harnessed to play an increasing role in the development process and poverty alleviation schemes. Poor smallholder farmers dominate agricultural production in many developing countries and contribute a significant portion of global food production. This paper aims to develop a scheme to improve poor smallholder farmers’ vulnerable financial situation through the application of Zakah and Salam contract, using Bangladesh as a case study. Secondary goals are to show the effect of the scheme on food security and relevance to Nigeria. Design/methodology/approach The authors explore the existing traditional modes of financing available to poor smallholders, identify their challenges and propose an appropriate Islamic financing scheme. Findings With the Zakah-based Salam forward contract, the proposed scheme would procure food through Institutional Demand to offer interest free financing, fair price and access to new marketing channels and reduce income uncertainty for the rural smallholders. The discussions indicate that the local food security will be enhanced through incentivized farming activities and disbursement of food from the food bank to the Zakah-eligible food insecure local people. Research limitations/implications This proposal brings forth a potentially powerful idea that needs further empirical validation. Originality/value The religion-based Institutional Demand initiative to promote smallholder agricultural development and social protection is a novel one. The attempt to apply the framework to Nigeria context shows the potential of the framework to generalize for other Muslim developing countries with similar characteristics, especially the poorer agriculture-based countries.

Dual-purpose winter wheat production is an important economic enterprise in the southern Great Plains of the United States. Because of the complex interactions involved in producing wheat grain and beef gain from a single crop, stocking density is an important decision. The objective of the research is to determine the stocking density that maximizes expected net returns from dual-purpose winter wheat production. Statistical tests rejected a conventional linear-response plateau function in favor of a linear-response stochastic plateau function. The optimal stocking density of 1.48 steers/ha (0.60 steers/acre) is 19% greater with a stochastic than with a nonstochastic plateau.

sons, up to two-thirds of the winter wheat seeded in Oklahoma is intended for dual-purpose (fall-winter for-After decades of continuous cropping, the pH of many soils used age and grain) production. Wheat may be seeded in the to produce continuous winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in the southern plains of Oklahoma has declined to levels that limit wheat late summer and grazed throughout the fall and winter. grain and forage yield. Data from a 3-yr study were used to determine If livestock are removed in late winter, before the develthe effect of lime and diammonium phosphate (DAP) application on opment of the first hollow stem (Redmon et al., 1996), fall-winter forage yield and grain yield of winter wheat grown in the wheat will mature and produce a grain crop. extremely acid soil and to determine the economically optimal strategy Mahler and McDole (1987) evaluated wheat grain for dual-purpose (forage plus grain) wheat production. A split-split yield response to pH in artificially acidified soil in northplot with sub-subplot treatments arranged in a randomized complete ern Idaho. They determined that pH levels below 5.19 block design was used, with lime in the main plots, variety in the to 5.37 restricted grain yield. Westerman (1987) came to subplots, and DAP in the sub-subplots. Grain yield significantly insimilar conclusions from work conducted in Oklahoma. creased (␣ ϭ 0.05) with lime at 2800 kg ha Ϫ1 effective calcium carbon-Both used agricultural limestone to treat acid soils. ate equivalent (ECCE), DAP at 73 kg ha Ϫ1 applied in seed furrows, or DAP at 146 kg ha Ϫ1 broadcast. Forage yields were greatest when In extremely acid soils, metals including Al and Mn DAP was applied at 146 kg ha Ϫ1 in seed furrows (␣ ϭ 0.05). When are relatively more available. The major cause of crop lime costs were fully assessed in the year of application, the strategy failure in extremely acid Oklahoma soils is Al toxicity of applying 73 kg ha Ϫ1 DAP in seed furrows and zero lime generated (Boman et al., 1992). Under these conditions, P reacts the greatest expected returns across all forage value estimates and with the Al, and both become insoluble. One recomgrain prices. With lime costs amortized over a 5-yr period, the optimal mended strategy for managing low-pH soils for continustrategy included both the application of lime before the initial season ous wheat production is to band a P fertilizer with the and 73 kg ha Ϫ1 DAP in seed furrows in each season.seed. Metal toxicity in the vicinity of the plant roots is reduced, and P applied in the band is more readily available to the crop (Johnson et al.,