The paper describes the development of the Race-Based Traumatic Stress Symptom Scale (RBTSSS), a measure designed to assess the psychological and emotional stress reactions to racism and racial discrimination. Scale items were derived from existing measures of race-related stress and models of trauma, and were tested on a 330 racially heterogeneous (e.g., Blacks, White, Asian, and Hispanic) adult sample. Exploratory Factor Analyses with oblique rotations revealed a 52-item measure consisting of seven scales; Depression, Anger, Physical Reactions, Avoidance, Intrusion, Hypervigilance/Arousal, and Low Self-Esteem. The findings are consistent with symptom clusters associated with the conceptual model of race-based traumatic stress. The RBTSSS adds a tool to counseling assessment by providing mental health professionals a way to assess the emotional reactions of racism and racial discrimination. Implications for counseling and future research are discussed.
This exploratory study examined microaggressions experienced by Latinas/os and considered whether such discrimination manifests differently based on gender, ethnicity, or nativity among a sample of 311 Latina/o Americans. Descriptive analyses of microaggression experiences in participants’ lives were examined with multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and a series of t tests. The results showed significant differences in experiences of microaggressions: women experienced more microaggressions in the workplace or school settings; self-identified Dominicans were more likely to experience being exoticized; and Puerto Ricans more likely to be treated as second-class citizens or as criminals. The results also found younger Latinos/as, and those with lower levels of education, were more likely to experience microinvalidations. Although the results support previous research that racial and ethnic minorities experience microaggressions, the current findings extend this growing body of research by highlighting the role of within group differences in Latina/o Americans’ experiences of microaggressions. Implications for research and racial microaggressions scholarship are discussed.
To understand the impact racial experiences have on people of color, it is important to consider both whether there are any race-based traumatic stress symptoms (RBTS) and within-group psychological differences as reflected in one's racial identity status attitudes (RISA). Moreover, if the combination of RBTS reactions and racial identity status attitudes are related to their psychological functioning? The current study explored the relationships between a person's reactions to memorable racial encounters as assessed by the Race-Based Traumatic Stress Symptoms Scale, their racial identity status attitudes measured by the People of Color Racial Identity Attitude Scale, and psychological functioning (i.e., distress and well-being). Data from 282 adult community-based participants were used to examine the combined associations between RBTS, racial identity status attitudes, psychological well-being and psychological distress. A hierarchical cluster analysis was conducted to examine the relationships between race-based traumatic stress reactions and racial identity status attitudes. A two-cluster group solution was found that showed associations between externally defined or less mature racial identity status attitudes and higher RBTS symptoms and psychological distress. Internally defined or more mature or differentiated racial identity statuses were related to decreased psychological distress and RBTS symptoms. The findings were not expected in that lower racial identity statues were associated with higher levels of RBTS. Clinical implications and future research directions are discussed.
scite is a Brooklyn-based organization that helps researchers better discover and understand research articles through Smart Citations–citations that display the context of the citation and describe whether the article provides supporting or contrasting evidence. scite is used by students and researchers from around the world and is funded in part by the National Science Foundation and the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health.