Initial development of the Race-Based Traumatic Stress Symptom Scale: Assessing the emotional impact of racism.

Abstract

The paper describes the development of the Race-Based Traumatic Stress Symptom Scale (RBTSSS), a measure designed to assess the psychological and emotional stress reactions to racism and racial discrimination. Scale items were derived from existing measures of race-related stress and models of trauma, and were tested on a 330 racially heterogeneous (e.g., Blacks, White, Asian, and Hispanic) adult sample. Exploratory Factor Analyses with oblique rotations revealed a 52-item measure consisting of seven scales; Depression, Anger, Physical Reactions, Avoidance, Intrusion, Hypervigilance/Arousal, and Low Self-Esteem. The findings are consistent with symptom clusters associated with the conceptual model of race-based traumatic stress. The RBTSSS adds a tool to counseling assessment by providing mental health professionals a way to assess the emotional reactions of racism and racial discrimination. Implications for counseling and future research are discussed.

Identifying and Treating Race‐Based Trauma in Counseling

“…Racism is involved in many aspects of daily living and is a common experience in the United States (Bonilla‐Silva, ; Carter et al, ; DeLilly, ; Nadal, ; Nadal, Griffin, Wong, Hamit, & Rasmus, ; Nadal et al, ; Shams, ). Tynes et al () stated that there has never been a time in history where racial discrimination has been more critical.…”

Ties that bind: community attachment and the experience of discrimination among Black men who have sex with men

“…Many researchers (Franklin 2004, Franklin, Franklin, and Kelly 2006; Klonoff and Landrine 1999; Klonoff, Landrine, and Ullman 1999; Pieterse and Carter 2007) have suggested that exposure to discrimination results in psychological distress. However, diagnosing individuals who have encountered discrimination due to race or sexual orientation as having a psychiatric disorder may be an error; symptoms consistent with psychiatric diagnoses may actually be reactions in response to discrimination and not psychiatric abnormalities (Carter et al 2013). In addition, psychiatric diagnoses may lead to individual treatment strategies that ignore the systemic, environmental and institutional factors of racism and heterosexism (Carter et al 2004).…”

Race‐Based Stress in White Adults: Exploring the Role of White Racial Identity Status Attitudes and Type of Racial Events

“…RBTSSS . On the RBTSSS (Carter et al, 2013), respondents describe in their own words three memorable race‐based events and select the most memorable to respond to a set of 52 psychological symptom items. Each item is preceded by the statement “As a consequence of the memorable encounter I had with racism.” Responses are scored on a 5‐point Likert‐type scale ranging from 0 ( does not describe my reaction ) to 4 ( this reaction would not go away ).…”

“…On the RBTSSS (Carter et al, 2013), respondents describe in their own words three memorable race-based events and select the most memorable to respond to a set of 52 psychological symptom items. Each item is preceded by the statement "As a consequence of the memorable encounter I had with racism."…”

“…Carter (2007) proposed that racial experiences could be stressful and/or traumatic leading to depression, anxiety, intrusion, avoidance, arousal, and other symptoms. The Race‐Based Traumatic Stress Symptom Scale (RBTSSS) was created and validated using racially heterogeneous samples, including both people of color and White Americans (Carter et al, 2013; Carter & Muchow, 2017). Empirical investigations using the RBTSSS, have demonstrated the validity of the scale, as well as found associations between race‐based traumatic stress (RBTS) symptoms and both cultural and psychological variables.…”