Race-based traumatic stress, racial identity statuses, and psychological functioning: An exploratory investigation.

Abstract

To understand the impact racial experiences have on people of color, it is important to consider both whether there are any race-based traumatic stress symptoms (RBTS) and within-group psychological differences as reflected in one's racial identity status attitudes (RISA). Moreover, if the combination of RBTS reactions and racial identity status attitudes are related to their psychological functioning? The current study explored the relationships between a person's reactions to memorable racial encounters as assessed by the Race-Based Traumatic Stress Symptoms Scale, their racial identity status attitudes measured by the People of Color Racial Identity Attitude Scale, and psychological functioning (i.e., distress and well-being). Data from 282 adult community-based participants were used to examine the combined associations between RBTS, racial identity status attitudes, psychological well-being and psychological distress. A hierarchical cluster analysis was conducted to examine the relationships between race-based traumatic stress reactions and racial identity status attitudes. A two-cluster group solution was found that showed associations between externally defined or less mature racial identity status attitudes and higher RBTS symptoms and psychological distress. Internally defined or more mature or differentiated racial identity statuses were related to decreased psychological distress and RBTS symptoms. The findings were not expected in that lower racial identity statues were associated with higher levels of RBTS. Clinical implications and future research directions are discussed.

Toward a Psychological Framework of Radical Healing in Communities of Color

“…Racism also has devastating effects on the mental health of racialized individuals, raising the risk for depression (Noh & Kaspar, 2003) and anxiety (Graham, West, Martinez, & Roemer, 2016). Scholars have also conceptualized racism as a chronic stressor that has the potential to produce trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD; Carter, 2007; Carter et al, 2017). Racism manifests in our built environment and results in disparities with exposure to environmental toxins and pollution; this type of environmental racism, in turn, impacts the health and well-being of POCI communities (Taylor, 2014).…”

Race‐Based Stress in White Adults: Exploring the Role of White Racial Identity Status Attitudes and Type of Racial Events

“…The impact of negative race‐based incidents on a person's psychological functioning has been widely researched for people of color (Carter, Johnson, et al, 2017; English, Lambert, & Ialongo, 2014). However, researchers have shown that Whites also report experiences of discrimination in various domains of life, including housing and work (e.g., Paradies et al, 2015), and that these experiences result in distress (Bower et al, 2013).…”

“…Empirical investigations using the RBTSSS, have demonstrated the validity of the scale, as well as found associations between race‐based traumatic stress (RBTS) symptoms and both cultural and psychological variables. Carter, Johnson, et al (2017) found that classes (i.e., types) of racism were predictive of RBTS symptoms, specifically avoidant (e.g., being excluded from work‐related social activities) and aversive (e.g., obtaining membership to an organization, then having qualifications questioned) hostile racism. Additionally, in a sample of people of color, Carter, Johnson, et al (2017) found that RBTS symptoms were positively associated with psychological distress.…”

“…Carter, Johnson, et al (2017) found that classes (i.e., types) of racism were predictive of RBTS symptoms, specifically avoidant (e.g., being excluded from work‐related social activities) and aversive (e.g., obtaining membership to an organization, then having qualifications questioned) hostile racism. Additionally, in a sample of people of color, Carter, Johnson, et al (2017) found that RBTS symptoms were positively associated with psychological distress. Additionally, they found that RBTS symptoms appeared to vary in their associations with racial identity status attitudes.…”

“…To specifically understand Whites’ racial encounters, it is necessary to know how their racial identity status attitudes might influence their descriptions of racial incidents, particularly given Whites’ dominant position within the United States (Carter, Johnson, et al, 2017; Helms & Carter, 1990). White racial identity development theory offers a way to understand the appraisal and impact of these experiences.…”