Sapindus mukorossi is a native tree in southern China that has multiple useful functions, including high landscaping, ecological, esthetic, and economic values. More importantly, its fruits are being rapidly developed as raw materials for bioenergy and saponin production in southern China. To provide a standardized phenological description of the species, this study firstly used the BBCH (Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt und CHemische Industrie) scale. In total, eight principal stages-i.e., bud, leaf and shoot development, inflorescence emergence, flowering, fruit development, fruit maturity, senescence and beginning of dormancy-and 58 secondary stages were described. It ranges from vegetative bud dormancy to the onset of the next beginning of the dormancy, using a two-digit numerical coding system. In addition to the descriptions, we provide photographic images of some major developmental stages to standardize morphological characteristics and the phenological observation of S. mukorossi. This study will be an asset for biological researches and cultivation management in Sapindus, and will provide valuable information for other fruit trees. mass of the kernel. Approximately 98% of the oil is stable medium-chain monounsaturated fatty acid, of which oleic and linoleic acids are the major components (>62.5%) [5][6][7][8]. The pericarp is rich in triterpenoid saponins and sesquiterpenoids that are widely used in skin care products, and have been developed as a natural source of surfactants [9][10][11][12]. Recent research shows that these saponins have the functional activities of hepatoprotective effects, anticancer proliferation, and killing sperm; they are also used for herbicidal and antioxidant [13][14][15][16]. These excellent properties make S. mukorossi an attractive candidate for further forest development. The species has been included in a Chinese national forestry biomass energy development project that will apply from 2011 to 2020. Several Chinese provinces (e.g., Fujian, Guizhou, Guangdong, Zhejiang Provinces, China) have planted forests on a large scale as raw material sources, and to facilitate many related enterprises. Programs for genetic analysis and selective improvement of species varieties are currently underway, along with developments in planting techniques, studies of biological characteristics, processing and utilization, and the establishment of a sustainable industrial chain [17][18][19][20].S. mukorossi trees can grow to about 30 m in height. They bloom at 4-5 years after seedlings have been planted. The inflorescence is a large terminal panicle growing in a sequence of 1, 2, 3 side axes on the primary axis. The floret is bisexual; each inflorescence contains small functional male and female flowers, which are light yellow to white-and each has five calyxes, five petals, eight stamens, and an ovary comprising 3-5 carpels. Functional male flowers usually bloom before females, although this sequence is sometimes reversed. The main pollinators are species of bees, flies, and butte...
Soapberry (Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn.) is a multi-functional tree with widespread application in toiletries, biomedicine, biomass energy, and landscaping. The pericarp of soapberry can be used as a medicine or detergent. However, there is currently no systematic study on the chemical constituents of soapberry pericarp during fruit development and ripening, and the dynamic changes in these constituents still unclear. In this study, a non-targeted metabolomics approach using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS) was used to comprehensively profile the variations in metabolites in the soapberry pericarp at eight fruit growth stages. The metabolome coverage of UHPLC-HRMS on a HILIC column was higher than that of a C18 column. A total of 111 metabolites were putatively annotated. Principal component analysis and hierarchical clustering analysis of pericarp metabolic composition revealed clear metabolic shifts from early (S1–S2) to late (S3–S5) development stages to fruit ripening stages (S6–S8). Furthermore, pairwise comparison identified 57 differential metabolites that were involved in 18 KEGG pathways. Early fruit development stages (S1–S2) were characterized by high levels of key fatty acids, nucleotides, organic acids, and phosphorylated intermediates, whereas fruit ripening stages (S6–S8) were characterized by high contents of bioactive and valuable metabolites, such as troxipide, vorinostat, furamizole, alpha-tocopherol quinone, luteolin, and sucrose. S8 (fully developed and mature stage) was the most suitable stage for fruit harvesting to utilize the pericarp. To the best of our knowledge, this was the first metabolomics study of the soapberry pericarp during whole fruit growth. The results could offer valuable information for harvesting, processing, and application of soapberry pericarp, as well as highlight the metabolites that could mediate the biological activity or properties of this medicinal plant.
Soapberry (Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn.) pericarps are rich in valuable bioactive triterpenoid saponins. However, the saponin content dynamics and the molecular regulatory network of saponin biosynthesis in soapberry pericarps remain largely unclear. Here, we performed combined metabolite profiling and transcriptome analysis to identify saponin accumulation kinetic patterns, investigate gene networks, and characterize key candidate genes and transcription factors (TFs) involved in saponin biosynthesis in soapberry pericarps. A total of 54 saponins were tentatively identified, including 25 that were differentially accumulated. Furthermore, 49 genes putatively involved in sapogenin backbone biosynthesis and some candidate genes assumed to be responsible for the backbone modification, including 41 cytochrome P450s and 45 glycosyltransferases, were identified. Saponinspecific clusters/modules were identified by Mfuzz clustering and weighted gene coexpression network analysis, and one TF−gene regulatory network underlying saponin biosynthesis was proposed. The results of yeast one-hybrid assay and electrophoretic mobility shift assay suggested that SmbHLH2, SmTCP4, and SmWRKY27 may play important roles in the triterpenoid saponin biosynthesis by directly regulating the transcription of SmCYP71D-3 in the soapberry pericarp. Overall, these findings provide valuable information for understanding the molecular regulatory mechanism of saponin biosynthesis, enriching the gene resources, and guiding further research on triterpenoid saponin accumulation in soapberry pericarps.
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