The Phenological Growth Stages of Sapindus mukorossi According to BBCH Scale

Abstract

Sapindus mukorossi is a native tree in southern China that has multiple useful functions, including high landscaping, ecological, esthetic, and economic values. More importantly, its fruits are being rapidly developed as raw materials for bioenergy and saponin production in southern China. To provide a standardized phenological description of the species, this study firstly used the BBCH (Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt und CHemische Industrie) scale. In total, eight principal stages-i.e., bud, leaf and shoot development, inflorescence emergence, flowering, fruit development, fruit maturity, senescence and beginning of dormancy-and 58 secondary stages were described. It ranges from vegetative bud dormancy to the onset of the next beginning of the dormancy, using a two-digit numerical coding system. In addition to the descriptions, we provide photographic images of some major developmental stages to standardize morphological characteristics and the phenological observation of S. mukorossi. This study will be an asset for biological researches and cultivation management in Sapindus, and will provide valuable information for other fruit trees. mass of the kernel. Approximately 98% of the oil is stable medium-chain monounsaturated fatty acid, of which oleic and linoleic acids are the major components (>62.5%) [5][6][7][8]. The pericarp is rich in triterpenoid saponins and sesquiterpenoids that are widely used in skin care products, and have been developed as a natural source of surfactants [9][10][11][12]. Recent research shows that these saponins have the functional activities of hepatoprotective effects, anticancer proliferation, and killing sperm; they are also used for herbicidal and antioxidant [13][14][15][16]. These excellent properties make S. mukorossi an attractive candidate for further forest development. The species has been included in a Chinese national forestry biomass energy development project that will apply from 2011 to 2020. Several Chinese provinces (e.g., Fujian, Guizhou, Guangdong, Zhejiang Provinces, China) have planted forests on a large scale as raw material sources, and to facilitate many related enterprises. Programs for genetic analysis and selective improvement of species varieties are currently underway, along with developments in planting techniques, studies of biological characteristics, processing and utilization, and the establishment of a sustainable industrial chain [17][18][19][20].S. mukorossi trees can grow to about 30 m in height. They bloom at 4-5 years after seedlings have been planted. The inflorescence is a large terminal panicle growing in a sequence of 1, 2, 3 side axes on the primary axis. The floret is bisexual; each inflorescence contains small functional male and female flowers, which are light yellow to white-and each has five calyxes, five petals, eight stamens, and an ovary comprising 3-5 carpels. Functional male flowers usually bloom before females, although this sequence is sometimes reversed. The main pollinators are species of bees, flies, and butte...

Study of the dynamic changes in the chemical constituents of Soapberry (Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn.) pericarp during fruit development by a non-targeted metabolomics approach

“…According to our investigation on the fruit morphology, the soapberry fruit grows rapidly in the early stage, which can grow to the maximum size at fruit turning color stage (S6), and the pericarp volume is also the largest at this time 42 . Although many bioactive metabolites were accumulated in the pericarp at initial fruit stage (S1) and fruit expanding stage (S4), the rst ve stages were not suitable for fruit harvesting considering the maximization of economic bene ts.…”

Environmental Performance of Soapberry (Sapindus Mukorossi Gaertn.) Cultivation in Southeast China based on a Life Cycle Assessment: A Potential Feedstock for Forest-based Biodiesel

“…Increasing the frequency of fertilization and reducing the amount of fertilizer used in each application can improve fertilizer use e ciency and reduce N 2 O emissions from applied N fertilizer. At the same time, a reasonable fertilization strategy based on the growth stages of soapberry tree (appropriate N application rate, formulation, timing of application and placement) should be studied [38,39]. Furthermore, stakeholders should pay attention to recent technology research to increase the yield of soapberry.…”

Phenological differences of quercus taxa

“…A special feature that increases the ornamental value of Quercus taxa is that their leaves have different shape at the base and apex of the shoots, and different shaped leaves on spring and summer shoots formed during periodic stem development [5]. To determine these phenological differences, we applied the internationally accepted BBCH scale [12], which was extended to ornamental trees as well.…”