The aim of this article is to discuss three challenges to the so-called “strong” versions of embodiment. The strong versions of embodied cognition (SVEC) have been successful in explaining how concrete concepts (e.g., pencil) may be understood based on sensory processes, yet they have failed to offer a comprehensive understanding of abstract concepts (e.g., freedom). In this regard, this article pinpoints three areas where the SVEC face limitations. First, the SVEC fail to fully support the active or passive perspective that an agent may assume when processing abstract concepts via embodied metaphorical representations. Second, the SVEC do not offer a compelling explanation for three different types of mental simulation proposed for the representation of nonactual motion semantics: enactive perception, perceptual scanning, and imagination. Third, the SVEC fail to account for inter-individual, cross-cultural, and context-dependency in the representation of abstract concepts. To summarize, we argue that the findings from the SVEC should be integrated into broader “weak” embodiment theoretical perspectives, which propose that sensory–motor and modality-independent systems are involved in conceptual representations. Finally, we discuss the implications of our core argument in cognitive neuroscience.
Aims To explore the relationship between mindfulness, self‐compassion and psychological flexibility, and the burnout subtypes in university students of the Psychology and Nursing degrees, and to analyse possible risk factors for developing burnout among socio‐demographic and studies‐related characteristics. Design Cross‐sectional study conducted on a sample of 644 undergraduate students of Nursing and Psychology from two Spanish universities. Methods The study was conducted between December 2015 and May 2016. Bivariate Pearson's correlations were computed to analyse the association between mindfulness facets, self‐compassion and psychological flexibility, and levels of burnout. Multivariate linear regression models and bivariate and multivariate binary logistic regressions were also computed. Results The three subtypes of burnout presented significant correlations with psychological flexibility, self‐compassion and some mindfulness facets. Psychological flexibility, self‐compassion and the mindfulness facets of observing and acting with awareness were significantly associated to burnout. Among the risk factors, ‘year of study’ was the only variable to show significantly higher risk for every burnout subtype. Conclusion The significant associations found between mindfulness, self‐compassion, psychological flexibility and burnout levels underline the need of including these variables as therapeutic targets when addressing the burnout syndrome in university students. Impact. Undergraduate students, especially those of health sciences, often experience burnout. This study delves into the protective role of some psychological variables: mindfulness, self‐compassion and psychological flexibility. These should be considered as potentially protective skills for developing burnout, and therefore, undergraduate students could be trained on these abilities to face their studies and their future profession to prevent experiencing burnout syndrome.
Approaching positive objects and avoiding negative ones are general action tendencies in human behavior. Interestingly, hand or arm positions connoting approach (arm flexion) or avoidance (arm extension) have also been shown to influence how the valence of a stimulus is evaluated. However, this causal effect on valence evaluation has been typically examined within experimental paradigms that do not require acting upon objects such as when touching or moving them. Accordingly, the current study attempts to integrate approach–avoidance paradigms with findings suggesting that manipulating visual stimuli directly by hand modulates their cognitive processing. Sixty participants evaluated the valence of 40 emotional pictures from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS) twice, first after watching them on a monitor (i.e., baseline evaluations) and second after swiping them on a touchscreen, either toward or away from their body (i.e., interactions regulating distance). Our findings confirmed that, in contrast to just watching the pictures, (a) swiping positive pictures closer and negative pictures away led to positively change their valence evaluation (i.e., reinforcing the perceived valence of positive pictures and attenuating the perceived valence of negative pictures). However, (b) swiping negative pictures closer and positive pictures away barely changed their initial valence evaluation. Against this background, we argue that swiping emotional pictures closer or away directly by hand, may intensify the attentional prioritization to interactions leading to more desirable consequences, namely, approaching positive and avoiding negative stimuli.
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