Background Microlearning, the acquisition of knowledge or skills in the form of small units, is endorsed by health professions educators as a means of facilitating student learning, training, and continuing education, but it is difficult to define in terms of its features and outcomes. Objective This review aimed to conduct a systematic search of the literature on microlearning in health professions education to identify key concepts, characterize microlearning as an educational strategy, and evaluate pedagogical outcomes experienced by health professions students. Methods A scoping review was performed using the bibliographic databases PubMed (MEDLINE), CINAHL, Education Resources Information Center, EMBASE, PsycINFO, Education Full Text (HW Wilson), and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. A combination of keywords and subject headings related to microlearning, electronic learning, or just-in-time learning combined with health professions education was used. No date limits were placed on the search, but inclusion was limited to materials published in English. Pedagogical outcomes were evaluated according to the 4-level Kirkpatrick model. Results A total of 3096 references were retrieved, of which 17 articles were selected after applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Articles that met the criteria were published between 2011 and 2018, and their authors were from a range of countries, including the United States, China, India, Australia, Canada, Iran, Netherlands, Taiwan, and the United Kingdom. The 17 studies reviewed included various health-related disciplines, such as medicine, nursing, pharmacy, dentistry, and allied health. Although microlearning appeared in a variety of subject areas, different technologies, such as podcast, short messaging service, microblogging, and social networking service, were also used. On the basis of Buchem and Hamelmann’s 10 microlearning concepts, each study satisfied at least 40% of the characteristics, whereas all studies featured concepts of maximum time spent less than 15 min as well as content aggregation. According to our assessment of each article using the Kirkpatrick model, 94% (16/17) assessed student reactions to the microlearning (level 1), 82% (14/17) evaluated knowledge or skill acquisition (level 2), 29% (5/17) measured the effect of the microlearning on student behavior (level 3), and no studies were found at the highest level. Conclusions Microlearning as an educational strategy has demonstrated a positive effect on the knowledge and confidence of health professions students in performing procedures, retaining knowledge, studying, and engaging in collaborative learning. However, downsides to microlearning include pedagogical discomfort, technology inequalities, and privacy concerns. Future research should look at higher-level outcomes, including benefits to patients or practice changes. The findings of this scoping revi...

Despite its beneficial role in host defense mechanisms, excessive nitric oxide (NO) production by activated macrophages has been implicated in several inflammatory diseases. To clarify the mechanisms of the anti-inflammatory activities of Sargassum micracanthum, we evaluated whether extracts of S. micracanthum could modulate the production of NO by activated macrophages. S. micracanthum were extracted with 80% EtOH. The extract was then successively partitioned with hexane, CH 2 Cl 2 , EtOAc, BuOH, and water. The results indicate that the hexane and CH 2 Cl 2 fractions of S. micracanthum extract were effective inhibitors of LPS-induced NO and prostaglandin E 2 (PGE 2 ) production in RAW 264.7 cells. The inhibitory effects of the hexane and CH 2 Cl 2 fractions of S. micracanthum were accompanied by dosedependent decreases in the production of iNOS and COX-2 proteins and iNOS and COX-2 mRNA expression. To test the inhibitory effects of S. micracanthum fractions on other cytokines, we also performed ELISA and RT-PCR assays for TNF-, IL-1ß, and IL-6 in LPSstimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. In these assays, the hexane and CH 2 Cl 2 fractions of S. micracanthum produced dose-dependent decreases in the production and mRNA expression of TNF-, IL-1ß, and IL-6. To test the potential application of S. micracanthum extract as a cosmetic material, we also performed MTT assays on human dermal fibroblast cells, as well as primary skin irritation tests. In these assays, S. micracanthum extracts did not induce any adverse reactions. Based on these results, we suggest that S. micracanthum extracts may be considered potential anti-inflammatory candidates for topical application.

Since acne vulgaris is the combined result of a bacterial infection and the inflammatory response to that infection, we examined whether Abies koreana essential oil (AKE) possessed anti-inflammatory and antibacterial activities against skin pathogens. In this study, AKE showed excellent antibacterial activities against drug-susceptible and -resistant Propionibacterium acnes and Staphylococcus epidermidis, which are acne-causing bacteria. In addition, AKE reduced the LPS-induced secretion of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), IL-6, NO and PGE(2) in RAW 264.7 cells, indicating that it has anti-inflammatory effects. Therefore, we suggest that AKE may be an attractive candidate for promoting skin health.

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A number of essential oils derived from plants are claimed to have several medicinal functions, including anti-cancer and anti-inflammation effects. However, the chemical composition and biological activities of flower-derived components have not been sufficiently characterized. Therefore, we investigated the composition of essential oils from Hallabong flower [( Citrus unshiu Marcov × Citrus sinensis Osbeck) × Citrus reticulata Blanco] and their anti-inflammatory effects. Hydro-distilled essential oils (HEOs) were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). In total, 21 components were identified, representing more than 98 % of the oils, with sabinene (34.75 %), linalool (14.77 %), β-ocimene (11.07 %), 4-terpineol (9.63 %), l-limonene (5.88 %), and γ-terpinene (4.67 %) as the main components. In the present study, we also investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of HEOs on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. HEOs were found to inhibit nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E 2 (PGE 2 ) production and to suppress the LPS-induced expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) protein. In addition, HEOs downregulated the production of the inflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-1β (IC 50 values are 0.05 %, 0.02 %, and 0.01 %, respectively). On the basis of these results, we suggest that HEOs can be considered potential anti-inflammatory candidates for therapeutic use in humans.