This article reports on the International Nanofluid Property Benchmark Exercise, or INPBE, in which the thermal conductivity of identical samples of colloidally stable dispersions of nanoparticles or "nanofluids," was measured by over 30 organizations worldwide, using a variety of experimental approaches, including the transient hot wire method, steady-state methods, and optical methods. The nanofluids tested in the exercise were comprised of aqueous and nonaqueous basefluids, metal and metal oxide particles, near-spherical and elongated particles, at low and high particle concentrations. The data analysis reveals that the data from most organizations lie within a relatively narrow band ͑Ϯ10% or less͒ about the sample average with only few outliers. The thermal conductivity of the nanofluids was found to increase with particle concentration and aspect ratio, as expected from classical theory. There are ͑small͒ systematic differences in the absolute values of the nanofluid thermal conductivity among the various experimental approaches; however, such differences tend to disappear when the data are normalized to the measured thermal conductivity of the basefluid. The effective medium theory developed for dispersed particles by Maxwell in 1881 and recently generalized by Nan et al. ͓J. Appl. Phys. 81, 6692 ͑1997͔͒, was found to be in good agreement with the experimental data, suggesting that no anomalous enhancement of thermal conductivity was achieved in the nanofluids tested in this exercise.

Au nanoparticles with plasmon resonances in the near-infrared (NIR) region of the spectrum efficiently convert light into heat, a property useful for the photothermal ablation of cancerous tumors subsequent to nanoparticle uptake at the tumor site. A critical aspect of this process is nanoparticle size, which influences both tumor uptake and photothermal efficiency. Here, we report a direct comparative study of ∼90 nm diameter Au nanomatryoshkas (Au/SiO2/Au) and ∼150 nm diameter Au nanoshells for photothermal therapeutic efficacy in highly aggressive triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) tumors in mice. Au nanomatryoshkas are strong light absorbers with 77% absorption efficiency, while the nanoshells are weaker absorbers with only 15% absorption efficiency. After an intravenous injection of Au nanomatryoshkas followed by a single NIR laser dose of 2 W/cm2 for 5 min, 83% of the TNBC tumor-bearing mice appeared healthy and tumor free >60 days later, while only 33% of mice treated with nanoshells survived the same period. The smaller size and larger absorption cross section of Au nanomatryoshkas combine to make this nanoparticle more effective than Au nanoshells for photothermal cancer therapy.

We show that an Au nanoshell with a pH-sensitive molecular adsorbate functions as a standalone, all-optical nanoscale pH meter that monitors its local environment through the pH-dependent surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) spectra of the adsorbate molecules. Moreover, we also show how the performance of such a functional nanodevice can be assessed quantitatively. The complex spectral output is reduced to a simple device characteristic by application of a locally linear manifold approximation algorithm. The average accuracy of the nano-"meter" was found to be +/-0.10 pH units across its operating range.

A comparative assessment of the 48-h acute toxicity of aqueous nanoparticles synthesized using the same methodology, including Au, Ag, and Ag-Au bimetallic nanoparticles, was conducted to determine their ecological effect in freshwater environments through the use of Daphnia magna, using their mortality as a toxicological endpoint. D. magna are one of the standard organisms used for ecotoxicity studies due to their sensitivity to chemical toxicants. Particle suspensions used in toxicity testing were well-characterized through a combination of absorbance measurements, atomic force or electron microscopy, flame atomic absorption spectrometry, and dynamic light scattering to determine composition, aggregation state, and particle size. The toxicity of all nanoparticles tested was found to be dose and composition dependent. The concentration of Au nanoparticles that killed 50% of the test organisms (LC(50)) ranged from 65-75 mg/L. In addition, three different sized Ag nanoparticles (diameters = 36, 52, and 66 nm) were studied to analyze the toxicological effects of particle size on D. magna; however, it was found that toxicity was not a function of size and ranged from 3-4 μg/L for all three sets of Ag nanoparticles tested. This was possibly due to the large degree of aggregation when these nanoparticles were suspended in standard synthetic freshwater. Moreover, the LC(50) values for Ag-Au bimetallic nanoparticles were found to be between that of Ag and Au but much closer to that of Ag. The bimetallic particles containing 80% Ag and 20% Au were found to have a significantly lower toxicity to Daphnia (LC(50) of 15 μg/L) compared to Ag nanoparticles, while the toxicity of the nanoparticles containing 20% Ag and 80% Au was greater than expected at 12 μg/L. The comparison results confirm that Ag nanoparticles were much more toxic than Au nanoparticles, and that the introduction of gold into silver nanoparticles may lower their environmental impact by lowering the amount of Ag which is bioavailable.

Can engaging college students in client‐centered projects in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) coursework increase interest in STEM professions? The current study explored the effectiveness of project‐based learning (PjBL) courses on student attitudes, major choice, and career aspirations in STEM. Framed in expectancy‐value and social cognitive career choice models, we examined the effect of engaging in at least one authentic, project‐based course during the first four semesters of college on student STEM attitudes and career aspirations in a quasi‐experimental study with a sample of (N = 492) natural science and engineering students. STEM self‐efficacy and subjective task value variables (STEM attainment, intrinsic and utility value of STEM courses, and relative cost associated with engaging in STEM courses) were examined as mediators of the relationship between classroom project‐based experiences and STEM career aspirations. Gender and underrepresented minority status were also examined. We found that engaging in at least one project‐based course during the first four semesters affected student perceptions of STEM skills, perceptions of the utility value of participating in STEM courses, and STEM career aspirations. Furthermore, we found that the effect of project‐based courses on STEM career aspirations was mediated by STEM skills and perceptions of course utility. The effect of PjBL was not moderated by race or gender. We highlight areas of future research and the promise of PjBL for engaging students in STEM professions.

The packing density of thiolated poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) adsorbates on Au nanoshells is determined by exploiting the surface-enhanced Raman scattering response of individual nanoshell substrates. By incorporating the linker molecule p-mercaptoaniline (pMA), the number of 2000 MW and 5000 MW PEG molecules on each nanoparticle is determined by interpolation of the Langmuir isotherm for pMA. We conclude that both PEG adsorbates maintain a compact "brush" rather than an extended "mushroom" configuration on nanoshell surfaces.

Multifunctional nanoparticles for biomedical applications have shown extraordinary potential as contrast agents in various bioimaging modalities, near-IR photothermal therapy, and for lighttriggered therapeutic release processes. Over the past several years, numerous studies have been performed to synthesize and enhance MRI contrast with nanoparticles. However, understanding the MRI enhancement mechanism in a multishell nanoparticle geometry, and controlling its properties, remains a challenge. To systematically examine MRI enhancement in a nanoparticle geometry, we have synthesized MRI-active Au nanomatryoshkas. These are Au coresilica layer-Au shell nanoparticles, where Gd(III) ions are encapsulated within the silica layer between the inner core and outer Au layer of the nanoparticle (Gd-NM). This multifunctional nanoparticle retains its strong near-IR Fano-resonant optical absorption properties essential for photothermal or other near-IR light-triggered therapy, while simultaneously providing increased T 1 contrast in MR imaging by concentrating Gd(III) within the nanoparticle. Measurements of Gd-NM revealed a strongly enhanced T 1 relaxivity (r 1 ∼ 24 mM

There is an unmet need for efficient near-infrared photothermal transducers for the treatment of highly aggressive cancers and large tumors where the penetration of light can be substantially reduced, and the intra-tumoral nanoparticle transport is restricted due to the presence of hypoxic or nectrotic regions. We report the performance advantages obtained by sub 100 nm gold nanomatryushkas, comprising of concentric gold-silica-gold layers compared to conventional ~150 nm silica core gold nanoshells for photothermal therapy of triple negative breast cancer. We demonstrate that a 33% reduction in silica-core-gold-shell nanoparticle size, while retaining near-infrared plasmon resonance, and keeping the nanoparticle surface charge constant, results in a four to five fold tumor accumulation of nanoparticles following equal dose of injected gold for both sizes. The survival time of mice bearing large (>1000 mm3) and highly aggressive triple negative breast tumors is doubled for the nanomatryushka treatment group under identical photo-thermal therapy conditions. The higher absorption cross-section of a nanomatryoshka results in a higher efficiency of photonic to thermal energy conversion and coupled with 4-5X accumulation within large tumors results in superior therapy efficacy.