CKD is increasingly prevalent in pregnancy. In the Torino-Cagliari Observational Study (TOCOS), we assessed whether the risk for adverse pregnancy outcomes is associated with CKD by comparing pregnancy outcomes of 504 pregnancies in women with CKD to outcomes of 836 low-risk pregnancies in women without CKD. The presence of hypertension, proteinuria (.1 g/d), systemic disease, and CKD stage (at referral) were assessed at baseline. The following outcomes were studied: cesarean section, preterm delivery, and early preterm delivery; small for gestational age (SGA); need for neonatal intensive care unit (NICU); new onset of hypertension; new onset/doubling of proteinuria; CKD stage shift; "general" combined outcome (preterm delivery, NICU, SGA); and "severe" combined outcome (early preterm delivery, NICU, SGA). The risk for adverse outcomes increased across stages (for stage 1 versus stages 4-5: "general" combined outcome, 34.1% versus 90.0%; "severe" combined outcome, 21.4% versus 80.0%; P,0.001). In women with stage 1 CKD, preterm delivery was associated with baseline hypertension (odds ratio [OR], 3.42; 95% confidence interval [95% CI], 1.87 to 6.21), systemic disease (OR, 3.13; 95% CI, 1.51 to 6.50), and proteinuria (OR, 3.69; 95% CI, 1.63 to 8.36). However, stage 1 CKD remained associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes (general combined outcome) in women without baseline hypertension, proteinuria, or systemic disease (OR, 1.88; 95% CI, 1.27 to 2.79). The risk of intrauterine death did not differ between patients and controls. Findings from this prospective study suggest a "baseline risk" for adverse pregnancy-related outcomes linked to CKD.

Data on pregnancy on dialysis are heterogeneous but rapidly accumulating; the main determinant of outcomes on HD is the dialysis schedule. The differences between PD and HD should be further analysed.

Background and objectives: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a challenge for pregnancy. Its recent classification underlines the importance of its early phases. This study's aim was to evaluate outcomes of pregnancy according to CKD stage versus low-risk pregnancies followed in the same center.Design, setting, participants, & measurements: The prospective analysis was conducted from January 2000 to May 2009 with the start of observation at referral and end of observation 1 month after delivery. Ninety-one singleton deliveries were studied; 267 "low-risk" singleton pregnancies served as controls. Because of the lack of hard end points (death, start of dialysis), surrogate end points were analyzed (cesarean section, prematurity, neonatal intensive care).Results: CKD outcome was worse than physiologic pregnancies: preterm delivery (44% versus 5%); cesarean section (44% versus 25%); and need for neonatal intensive care (26% versus 1%). The differences were highly significant in stage 1 CKD (61 cases) versus controls (CKD stage 1: cesarean sections ‫؍‬ 57%, preterm delivery ‫؍‬ 33%, intensive care ‫؍‬ 18%). In CKD, proteinuria and hypertension were correlated with outcomes [proteinuria dichotomized at 1 g/24 h at referral: need for intensive care, relative risk (RR) ‫؍‬ 4. Conclusions: CKD is a challenge for pregnancy from early stages. Strict follow-up is needed for CKD patients, even when there is normal renal function.

Pregnancy is increasingly undertaken in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and, conversely, CKD is increasingly diagnosed in pregnancy: up to 3 % of pregnancies are estimated to be complicated by CKD. The heterogeneity of CKD (accounting for stage, hypertension and proteinuria) and the rarity of several kidney diseases make risk assessment difficult and therapeutic strategies are often based upon scattered experiences and small series. In this setting, the aim of this position statement of the Kidney and Pregnancy Study Group of the Italian Society of Nephrology is to review the literature, and discuss the experience in the clinical management of CKD in pregnancy. CKD is associated with an increased risk for adverse pregnancy-related outcomes since its early stage, also in the absence of hypertension and proteinuria, thus supporting the need for a multidisciplinary follow-up in all CKD patients. CKD stage, hypertension and proteinuria are interrelated, but they are also independent risk factors for adverse pregnancy-related outcomes. Among the different kidney diseases, patients with glomerulonephritis and immunologic diseases are at higher risk of developing or increasing proteinuria and hypertension, a picture often difficult to differentiate from preeclampsia. The risk is higher in active immunologic diseases, and in those cases that are detected or flare up during pregnancy. Referral to tertiary care centres for multidisciplinary follow-up and tailored approaches are warranted. The risk of maternal death is, almost exclusively, reported in systemic lupus erythematosus and vasculitis, which share with diabetic nephropathy an increased risk for perinatal death of the babies. Conversely, patients with kidney malformation, autosomal-dominant polycystic kidney disease, stone disease, and previous upper urinary tract infections are at higher risk for urinary tract infections, in turn associated with prematurity. No risk for malformations other than those related to familiar urinary tract malformations is reported in CKD patients, with the possible exception of diabetic nephropathy. Risks of worsening of the renal function are differently reported, but are higher in advanced CKD. Strict follow-up is needed, also to identify the best balance between maternal and foetal risks. The need for further multicentre studies is underlined.

Conclusions: Evidence on pregnancy in dialysis is heterogeneous; however, the growing number of reports worldwide and the improving results suggest that we should reconsider our counseling policy, which only rarely includes pregnancy in dialysis patients.

Having a baby while on dialysis is rare but not impossible, though early mortality remains high. There is a 'scale of probability' estimating that women on dialysis have a 10-fold lower probability of delivering a live-born baby than those who have undergone renal transplantation, who in turn have a 10-fold lower probability of delivering a live-born baby as compared with the overall population.

Background Kidney diseases, which have a prevalence of 3% in women of childbearing age, are increasingly encountered in pregnancy. Glomerulonephritis may develop or flare up in pregnancy, and a differential diagnosis with pre-eclampsia may be impossible on clinical grounds. Use of kidney biopsy is controversial, but a systematic review has not been carried out to date.Objectives To review the literature on kidney biopsy in pregnancy, with a focus on indications, risks and timing.Search strategy Medline, Embase, CHINAL and the Cochrane Library were searched in September 2012, with 'pregnancy' and 'kidney biopsy' used as MESH and free terms, for the period 1980-2012. Results were filtered for 'human' if this option was available.Selection criteria Biopsies during pregnancy and within 2 months after delivery. Case reports (fewer than five cases) and kidney grafts were excluded. Paper selection was performed in duplicate.Data collection and analysis Data were extracted in duplicate. The high heterogeneity in study design necessitated that the review be narrative, except for data on adverse events, which were analysed with regard to the timing of kidney biopsy.Main results Of 949 references, 39 were selected, providing data on 243 biopsies in pregnancy and 1236 after delivery (timing was unclear in 106 women). The main aims of the studies were to define morphology in pre-eclampsia (23 studies), to carry out a riskbenefit analysis of kidney biopsy (11 studies), and to investigate pregnancy-related acute kidney injury (five studies). Four cases of major bleeding complications occurred at 23-26 weeks of gestation. Relevant complications were observed in 7% of women during pregnancy and 1% after delivery (P = 0.001). Kidney biopsy performed for the diagnosis of glomerulonephritis or pre-eclampsia led to therapeutic changes in 66% of cases.Authors' conclusions The evidence on kidney biopsy in pregnancy is heterogeneous, but a significantly higher risk of complications (relative to postpartum biopsy) was found, with a possible peak at around 25 gestational weeks.

Preeclampsia, affecting 5-8% of pregnancies, is the main cause of fetal-maternal mortality and morbidity. The differential diagnosis with chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a challenge owing to the overlapping clinical features. No biomarker has been found to discriminate between the two conditions. Here, we tested whether maternal serum levels of placental growth factor (PlGF) and soluble FMS-like tyrosine kinase-1 (sFlt-1), markers of preeclampsia, could be used to discriminate between 34 patients with preeclampsia, 23 patients with CKD during pregnancy, and 38 healthy pregnant women. Serum levels of PlGF and sFlt-1 were determined during the third trimester by commercially available immunoassays. In preeclampsia, sFlt-1 levels were significantly increased in comparison with that in CKD and in the control women. Serum levels of PlGF in preeclampsia were significantly decreased relative to both controls and patients with CKD. The sFlt-1 to PlGF ratio was significantly increased in preeclampsia (median 436) compared with controls (median 9.4) and CKD (median 4.0). No differences were found between controls and patients with CKD. Thus, our study suggests that it is possible to discriminate between preeclampsia and CKD during pregnancy by determining maternal serum levels of sFlt-1 and PlGF and their ratio.