Nicotine, primary component of tobaco produces craving and withdrawal effect both in humans and animals. Nicotine shows a close resemblance to other addictive drugs in molecular, neuroanatomical and pharmacological, particularly the drugs which enhances the cognitive functions. Nicotine mainly shows its action through specific nicotinic acetylcholine receptors located in brain. It stimulates presynaptic acetylcholine receptors thereby enhancing Ach release and metabolism. Dopaminergic system is also stimulated by it, thus increasing the concentration of dopamine in nuclear accumbens. This property of nicotine according to various researchers is responsible for reinforcing behavioral change and dependence of nicotine. Various researchers have also depicted that some non dopaminergic systems are also involved for rewarding effect of nicotinic withdrawal. Neurological systems such as GABAergic, serotonergic, noradrenergic, and brain stem cholinergic may also be involved to mediate the actions of nicotine. Further, the neurobiological pathway to nicotine dependence might perhaps be appropriate to the attachment of nicotine to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, peruse by stimulation of dopaminergic system and activation of general pharmacological changes that might be responsible for nicotine addiction. It is also suggested that MAO A and B both are restrained by nicotine. This enzyme helps in degradation dopamine, which is mainly responsible for nicotinic actions and dependence. Various questions remain uninsurable to nicotine mechanism and require more research. Also, various genetic methods united with modern instrumental analysis might result for more authentic information for nicotine addiction.
Herbal plants are found abundant in all parts of the world with various uses for its medicinal, pharmaceutical, and nutritional value as well as the ordinary spice in our culinary. Nature is a principal source of herbal medicines. The increasing use of herbal medicine around the globe requires new scientific approaches for their standardization. Evaluation of Physical and chemical parameters are the most common parameters for standardization. Now days, a number of method exists, but not satisfying everyone all over the globe. With the use of newer technique such as omics, (proteomics, metabonomics, transcriptomics etc.), we can easily have depth knowledge of pharmacodyanamics, pharmacokinetics and toxicological characterization of active constituent of an herbal plant. These techniques have made one standard approach for the standardization and modernization of herbal medicine. The modernization of herbal medicine is the need of hour to cater the global demand by means of patient compatibility. The omic technique can also play an important role for the conservation of knowledge of ancient plant species. Moreover omic technique is an important tool for fingerprinting and quality control of herbal medicine. In this review, an emphasis has been made on different techniques of omics and their use in standardization and modernization of herbal plant.
Diabetes mellitus is classified into two major types, Type 1 (Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus) and Type 2 (Non-Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus). In world about 90% of diabetes patients are of Type 2 diabetes. There are various in-vivo and in-vitro methods available for the screening of new antidiabetic drugs. In-vivo models mainly uses chemical such as streptozotocin, alloxan etc. for the induction of diabetes where as in-vitro techniques, directly show its effect on cells which are responsible for induction of diabetes in human. In vitro techniques provide more accurate data and possible mechanism which are involved in diabetes disease. Now, a day's newer techniques such as diabetes induction with the help of viruses had been also introduced which are proving to be good tool in evaluation of antidiabetic drugs. This review could prove to be a good tool for the researchers who seek to do research on diabetes as it is providing vast resource about diabetic model under single umbrella.
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