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Lead is known to have numerous adverse effects especially to infants and children. The intake of lead through drinking water is commonly due to metal corrosion in the peripheral water distribution system, especially the user's plumbing. The aim of this project was to assess the present state of drinking water contamination with lead in Lower Saxony and to promote replacement of lead pipes. For this purpose a project was initiated comprising three parts. First, a free examination of drinking water was offered in cooperation with local public health departments for private households with young women and families with children living in buildings constructed before 1974. Participants were asked to collect a cold tap water sample in their household after nocturnal stagnation and to complete a questionnaire. The collected samples were analysed by atomic absorption spectrometry for their lead concentration. Second, data from local public health departments on results of lead measurements, especially in buildings for the public, were collected and analysed. Finally a working group 'lead replacement' was initiated. In the project in total 2436 tap water samples from households were collected. Of these, 6.49% had lead concentrations exceeding 10 microg/l (recommended limit of the World Health Organization) and 2.79% had concentrations above the limit of the German drinking water ordinance (25 microg/l). There were remarkable regional differences in the frequency of tap water contamination. Multi-family houses were more frequently affected than single- and double-family houses.

Part of the norther Palat e region in Germany is erized by elevated leels of arsenic and antimony in the soil due to the presence ofore sources and former mining activities. In a biomonitoring study, 218 residents were investigted for a putative increased intake of these elements. Seventy-six nonexposd subjects in a rur region in south lower Saxony were chosen as the rrece group. Urine and scalp hair sampes were obtained as su to dein he miteral exposures to arsenic and antimony. The analys were pefr*m ed using graphite furace atomic absorption spectrometry except for arsenic in urine, which was determined by the hydride tecnique. This method does not detect organo ls from sefood, which are not toxicologicaly relevant In the northem Palatinate subjects, sdighy elevated arsenic contents in urine and scalp hair (presumably not hazardous) could be corrldated with an increased arenic content in the soil. On the other hand, the results did not show a correation between the am contents in tie soil ofthe housing area and those in urine and hair. Except for an y in sp hair, age tended to be associatd wi intenal exposure to arsenic and antimony in both study groups. Consumpion of seafood had a slight impact on the levd ofuinary arsenic, which is indi of dte presence oflow quanities of inoranic arsenicas and dimethasinic acid in sefood. Th.e arsenic and antimony contents in scalp hair were positively correated with the 24-hr arsenic io in urine. However, antimony in scalp hair was not correlated with seafood consmptio as was asenic in slp hair and in urine. Tbis indicated the exstence of unidentified common p of exposure contributng to the almentary body burden. Short time peaks in the 24-hr excretion of arsenic in urine, which could not be signed to a high consumpio of sfood, were detected for six pard pan. This suggest that additional factors relevant in the exposure to arsenic are still unidentified. I&y wondv arsenic, antimony, human biomonitoring, scalp hair, urine.

Part of the norther Palat e region in Germany is erized by elevated leels of arsenic and antimony in the soil due to the presence ofore sources and former mining activities. In a biomonitoring study, 218 residents were investigted for a putative increased intake of these elements. Seventy-six nonexposd subjects in a rur region in south lower Saxony were chosen as the rrece group. Urine and scalp hair sampes were obtained as su to dein he miteral exposures to arsenic and antimony. The analys were pefr*m ed using graphite furace atomic absorption spectrometry except for arsenic in urine, which was determined by the hydride tecnique. This method does not detect organo ls from sefood, which are not toxicologicaly relevant In the northem Palatinate subjects, sdighy elevated arsenic contents in urine and scalp hair (presumably not hazardous) could be corrldated with an increased arenic content in the soil. On the other hand, the results did not show a correation between the am contents in tie soil ofthe housing area and those in urine and hair. Except for an y in sp hair, age tended to be associatd wi intenal exposure to arsenic and antimony in both study groups. Consumpion of seafood had a slight impact on the levd ofuinary arsenic, which is indi of dte presence oflow quanities of inoranic arsenicas and dimethasinic acid in sefood. Th.e arsenic and antimony contents in scalp hair were positively correated with the 24-hr arsenic io in urine. However, antimony in scalp hair was not correlated with seafood consmptio as was asenic in slp hair and in urine. (19). The purpose of the present study was to investigate the transfer of arsenic and antimony from the environment to humans in the northern Palatinate region. Unlike the studies on arsenic previously described in which the main sources of exposure were arsenic-contaminated drinking water and industrial emissions, this study focuses on soil contaminated with arsenic and antimony as the main source of exposure.Because humans excrete arsenic and antimony mainly via the kidneys (28-30), urinary concentrations were used as valid biomarkers of exposure. Biomonitoring of scalp hair was performed as additional screening to record cumulative exposures. MethodsStudy design and study population. This study was preceded by a project that sought to determine the contents of arsenic and antimony in soil and in plant and animal samples from the northern Palatinate region of Germany. Residents for whom the soil contents of arsenic and antimony in their housing areas were known (one to three soil samples per individual) were asked to participate in the study. To minimize a selection bias, a maximum participation rate was achieved by convincing those residents who did not reply to our first written request to participate. Nonexposed subjects from a rural area in south lower Saxony (Germany) were chosen as the reference group.A six-page questionnaire served to assess factors of interest and confounding variables. All study subjects were interviewed concerning demographic characteristi...

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