Women use linguistic forms associated with the prestige standard more frequently than men. One reason for this is that working-class speech has favourable connotations for male speakers. Favourable attitudes to nonstandard speech are not normally expressed, however, and emerge only in inaccurate self-evaluation test responses. Patterns of sex differentiation deviating from the norm indicate that a linguistic change is taking place: standard forms are introduced by middle-class women, non-standard forms by working-class men. (Sociolinguistic variation; linguistic change; women's and men's speech; contextual styles; social class; British English.)
Linguistic geography has remained relatively unaffected by recent developments in sociolinguistic theory and method and theoretical geography. In this paper it is argued that insights and techniques from both these disciplines will be of value in improving descriptions of geographical variation in language, and that these improvements will in turn lead to more adequate explanations for certain of the social and spatial characteristics of linguistic change. Evidence in favour of a sociolinguistic methodology and new cartographic techniques in dialect geography is drawn from empirical studies in urban dialectology, in East Anglia, England, and rural dialectology, in Norway. (Sociolinguistic variation, dialectology, linguistic change, British English, Norwegian.) William Labov's Social Stratification of English in New York City has made a number of very important contributions to linguistic theory and practice. 1 Among these are the development of the concept of the linguistic variable, which has provided linguists with a means of measuring and describing gradient and variable linguistic features, and the adoption of certain aspects of sociological methodology (particularly sampling and social class index construction), which has permitted a detailed study of the covariation of linguistic and social phenomena. This in turn has enabled us to achieve a clearer understanding of the nature of the relationship between language and various sociological parameters, and increased our knowledge about the social setting of linguistic change. In this paper I want to argue that the linguistic variable, together with a number of methodological and theoretical insights from human geography, can similarly improve our knowledge of the relationship between language and geography, and of the geographical setting of linguistic change.In section 1 I shall suggest some reasons for considering the improvement of[1] I am very grateful indeed to R. L. Hodgart, who first interested me in the topic of this paper, and to Arne Kjell Foldvik, who first involved me in the study of Norwegian, and without whom the Brunlanes survey would have been impossible. I am also grateful to the large number of people who commented on earlier versions of this paper, especially . My thanks are also due to Ingeborg Hoff for her help with aspects of the Norwegian data. LINGUISTIC CHANGE IN DIALECT GEOGRAPHYthis way will we be able to arrive at an understanding of the sociolinguistic mechanisms that lie behind the geographical distribution of linguistic phenomena, the location of isoglosses, and the diffusion of linguistic innovations. If we are to achieve this understanding we need to be able to say exactly why and how linguistic features, under linguistic change, are diffused from one location or social group to another. This does not mean to say, of course, that linguistic geography, hitherto, has not been concerned with explanations of this type. German dialectology, in particular, certainly has (see Bach 1950; Moser 1954; Wagner 1927, amongst several others)...
Cyclohexanone oxygenases from Nocardia globerula CL1 and Acinetobacter NCIB 9571 have been purified 12‐fold and 35‐fold respectively and each gives a single symmetrical sedimentation peak in the ultracentrifuge and a single protein band on 2.25 nm average pore radius polyacrylamide gels. The enzyme from N. globerula has a molecular weight of 53000 while that from Acinetobacter has a molecular weight of about 59000. Each is a single polypeptide chain with one mole of bound FAD per mole of protein that does not dissociate during purification. Acidification of the Acinetobacter enzyme in the presence of (NH4)2SO4 releases the bound FAD and yields native apoenzyme from which the active holoenzyme can be reconstituted. The apparent dissociation constant for the FAD is 40 nM. The near unitary stoichiometry of cyclohexanone, NADPH and oxygen consumption is typical of mixed function oxygenases with external electron donors. The oxygenated product has been identified as 1‐oxa‐2‐oxocycloheptane thus placing these enzymes in the small group of lactone and ester‐forming oxygenases. Their correct systematic name is cyclohexanone. NADPH: oxygen oxidoreductase (1,2‐lactonizing) (EC 1.14.13.‐). A functionally essential sulfhydryl group is present at the catalytic centre of both enzymes but there is no reliable indication from inhibitor studies that they contain any functional metal ion. The three titratable sulfhydryl groups of the Acinetobacter enzyme are not equivalent since reaction with one of them selectively inhibits catalytic activity. Protection against sulfhydryl active agents is afforded by NADPH but not by cyclohexanone. The N. globerula enzyme has a pH optimum of 8.4, apparent Km values of 1.56 μM and 31.3 μM for cyclohexanone and NADPH respectively and a catalytic centre activity of 1018 ml substrate transformed × mol enzyme−1× min−1. The Acinetobacter enzyme has a pH optimum of 9.0, apparent Km values of 6.9 tM and 17.8 μM and a catalytic centre activity of 1390 mol × mol enzyme−1× min−1. Both enzymes display absolute specificity for electron donor which contrasts with the broad specificity for ketone substrate. An enzyme‐cyclohexanone complex has been detected by difference spectroscopy only in the case of the Nocardia enzyme. Rapid reduction of the enzyme‐bound FAD occurs upon addition of NADPH in the absence of cyclohexanone. Titration of enzyme with NADPH under anaerobic conditions and anaerobic photoreduction in the presence of EDTA have not revealed the formation of any stable flavin semiquinones. These enzymes bear a strong resemblance to several of the monooxygenases that hydroxylate aromatic compounds.
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