Methamphetamine intoxication causes long-lasting damage to dopamine nerve endings in the striatum. The mechanisms underlying this neurotoxicity are not known but oxidative stress has been implicated. Microglia are the major antigen-presenting cells in brain and when activated, they secrete an array of factors that cause neuronal damage. Surprisingly, very little work has been directed at the study of microglial activation as part of the methamphetamine neurotoxic cascade. We report here that methamphetamine activates microglia in a dose-related manner and along a time course that is coincident with dopamine nerve ending damage. Prevention of methamphetamine toxicity by maintaining treated mice at low ambient temperature prevents drug-induced microglial activation. MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine), which damages dopamine nerve endings and cell bodies, causes extensive microglial activation in striatum as well as in the substantia nigra. In contrast, methamphetamine causes neither microglial activation in the substantia nigra nor dopamine cell body damage. Dopamine transporter antagonists (cocaine, WIN 35,428 [(Ϫ)-2-␤-carbomethoxy-3-␤-(4-fluorophenyl)tropane 1,5-naphthalenedisulfonate], and nomifensine), selective D1 (SKF 82958 [(Ϯ)-6-chloro-7,8-dihydroxy-3-allyl-1-phenyl-2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1H-3-benzazepine hydrobromide]), D2 (quinpirole), or mixed D1/D2 receptor agonists (apomorphine) do not mimic the effect of methamphetamine on microglia. Hyperthermia, a prominent and dangerous clinical response to methamphetamine intoxication, was also ruled out as the cause of microglial activation. Together, these data suggest that microglial activation represents an early step in methamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity. Other neurochemical effects resulting from methamphetamine-induced overflow of DA into the synapse, but which are not neurotoxic, do not play a role in this response.

No abstract

The developing prefrontal cortex receives a dense serotonergic innervation, yet little is known about the actions of serotonin

The circadian clock orchestrates diverse physiological processes critical for health and disease. CREB, hepatocyte specific (CREBH) is a liver-enriched, endoplasmic reticulum (ER)–tethered transcription factor known to regulate the hepatic acute phase response and energy homeostasis under stress conditions. We demonstrate that CREBH is regulated by the circadian clock and functions as a circadian regulator of hepatic lipid metabolism. Proteolytic activation of CREBH in the liver exhibits typical circadian rhythmicity controlled by the core clock oscillator BMAL1 and AKT/glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β) signaling pathway. GSK3β-mediated phosphorylation of CREBH modulates the association between CREBH and the coat protein complex II transport vesicle and thus controls the ER-to-Golgi transport and subsequent proteolytic cleavage of CREBH in a circadian manner. Functionally, CREBH regulates circadian expression of the key genes involved in triglyceride (TG) and fatty acid (FA) metabolism and is required to maintain circadian amplitudes of blood TG and FA in mice. During the circadian cycle, CREBH rhythmically regulates and interacts with the hepatic nuclear receptors peroxisome proliferator–activated receptor α and liver X receptor α as well as with the circadian oscillation activator DBP and the repressor E4BP4 to modulate CREBH transcriptional activities. In conclusion, these studies reveal that CREBH functions as a circadian-regulated liver transcriptional regulator that integrates energy metabolism with circadian rhythm.

Clinical and experimental studies implicate the use of serotonin (5-HT)1A receptor agonists for the reduction of l-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA)-induced dyskinesia (LID). Although raphe nuclei likely play a role in these antidyskinetic effects, an unexplored population of striatal 5-HT1A receptors (5-HT1AR) may also contribute. To better characterize this mechanism, L-DOPA-primed hemiparkinsonian rats received the 5-HT1AR agonist ±8-OH-DPAT (0, 0.1, 1.0 mg/kg, i.p.) with or without cotreatment with the 5-HT1AR antagonist WAY100635 (0.5 mg/kg, i.p.) 5 min after L-DOPA, after which abnormal involuntary movements (AIMs), rotations, and forelimb akinesia were quantified. To establish the effects of 5-HT1AR stimulation on L-DOPA-induced c-fos and preprodynorphin (PPD) mRNA within the dopamine-depleted striatum, immunohistochemistry and real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, respectively, were used. Finally, to determine the contribution of striatal 5-HT1AR to these effects, L-DOPA-primed hemiparkinsonian rats received bilateral intrastriatal microinfusions of ±8-OH-DPAT (0, 5, or 10 μg/side), WAY100635 (5 μg/side), or both (10 μg + 5 μg/side) 5 min after L-DOPA, after which AIMs and rotations were examined. Systemic ±8-OH-DPAT dose- and receptor-dependently attenuated L-DOPA-mediated AIMs and improved forelimb akinesia. Striatal c-fos immuno-reactivity and PPD mRNA ipsilateral to the lesion were strongly induced by L-DOPA, while ±8-OH-DPAT suppressed these effects. Finally, intrastriatal infusions of ±8-OH-DPAT reduced AIMs while coinfusion of WAY100635 reversed its antidyskinetic effect. Collectively, these results support the hypothesis that the cellular and behavioral properties of 5-HT1AR agonists are conveyed in part via a population of functional 5-HT1AR within the striatum.

No abstract

Cyclic AMP-responsive element binding protein, hepatocyte specific (CREBH), is a liver-enriched, endoplasmic reticulum-tethered transcription factor known to regulate the hepatic acute-phase response and lipid homeostasis. In this study, we demonstrate that CREBH functions as a circadian transcriptional regulator that plays major roles in maintaining glucose homeostasis. The proteolytic cleavage and posttranslational acetylation modification of CREBH are regulated by the circadian clock. Functionally, CREBH is required in order to maintain circadian homeostasis of hepatic glycogen storage and blood glucose levels. CREBH regulates the rhythmic expression of the genes encoding the rate-limiting enzymes for glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis, including liver glycogen phosphorylase (PYGL), phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 1 (PCK1), and the glucose-6-phosphatase catalytic subunit (G6PC). CREBH interacts with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor ␣ (PPAR␣) to synergize its transcriptional activities in hepatic gluconeogenesis. The acetylation of CREBH at lysine residue 294 controls CREBH-PPAR␣ interaction and synergy in regulating hepatic glucose metabolism in mice. CREBH deficiency leads to reduced blood glucose levels but increases hepatic glycogen levels during the daytime or upon fasting. In summary, our studies revealed that CREBH functions as a key metabolic regulator that controls glucose homeostasis across the circadian cycle or under metabolic stress.

In the retina, dopamine is a key molecule for daytime vision. Dopamine is released by retinal dopaminergic amacrine cells and transmits signaling either by conventional synaptic or by volume transmission. By means of volume transmission, dopamine modulates all layers of retinal neurons; however, it is not well understood how dopamine modulates visual signaling pathways in bipolar cells. Here, we analyzed Drd1a-tdTomato BAC transgenic mice and found that dopamine D1 receptor (D1R) is expressed in retinal bipolar cells in a type-dependent manner. Strong tdTomato fluorescence was detected in the inner nuclear layer and localized to type 1, 3b, and 4 OFF bipolar cells and type 5-2, XBC, 6, and 7 ON bipolar cells. In contrast, type 2, 3a, 5-1, 9, and rod bipolar cells did not express Drd1a–tdTomato. Other interneurons were also found to express tdTomato including horizontal cells and a subset (25%) of AII amacrine cells. Diverse visual processing pathways, such as color or motion-coded pathways are thought to be initiated in retinal bipolar cells. Our results indicate that dopamine sculpts bipolar cell performance in a type-dependent manner to facilitate daytime vision.