The aim of this multi-experiment paper was to explore the concept of the minimum effective training dose (METD) required to increase 1-repetition-maximum (1RM) strength in powerlifting (PL) athletes. The METD refers to the least amount of training required to elicit meaningful increases in 1RM strength. A series of 5 studies utilising mixed methods, were conducted using PL athletes & coaches of all levels in an attempt to better understand the METD for 1RM strength. The studies of this multi-experiment paper are: an interview study with elite PL athletes & highly experienced PL coaches (n=28), an interview & survey study with PL coaches and PL athletes of all levels (n=137), 2 training intervention studies with intermediateadvanced PL athletes (n=25) & a survey study with competitive PL athletes of different levels (n=57). PL athletes looking to train with a METD approach can do so by performing approximately 3-6 working sets of 1-5 repetitions each week, with these sets spread across 1-3 sessions per week per powerlift, using

The present study looked to examine reduced volume ‘daily max’ (near max loads) training compared to higher volume periodized training in powerlifters preparing for competition. Ten competitive powerlifters were split into 2 groups (MAX group and PER group) and participated in a 10-week training intervention either following a “daily max” training protocol or a traditional periodized training protocol while preparing for competition. All participants underwent 1RM testing for squat (SQ), bench press (BP) and deadlift (DL) prior to the 10-week intervention. The MAX group performed single sets of single repetitions using a load equating to an RPE rating of 9–9.5 while the PER group performed higher volume periodized training with loads ranging from 70%1RM up to 93%1RM as well as a taper at the final weeks of the training intervention. Both groups were tested after the 10-week training intervention at the Greek IPF-affiliate National Championships. In the PER group, powerlifting (PL) total increased for P1 and P3 by 2% and 6.5% respectively while P2 experienced no change. In the MAX group PL total increased for P1 and P2 by 4.8% and 4.2% respectively while it decreased by 0.5%, 3.4% and 5% for P3, P4 and P5 respectively. In the MAX group peri PL total increased for P1–4 by 3.6%, 4.2%, 4.5% and 1.8% respectively while it decreased by 1.2% for P5. The results of this pilot study show that single-set, single-rep, RPE based ‘daily max’ training may be a favorable strategy for some beginner-intermediate powerlifters preparing for competition while it may lead to performance decreases for others. Further, it suggests that performance may be comparable to traditional periodized training during shorter training cycles, though future work with larger samples is needed to further test this. Practically ‘daily max’ training may be useful for PL athletes looking to maintain strength during periods with limited training time available.

Background: Prescribing repetitions relative to task-failure is an emerging approach to resistance training. Under this approach, participants terminate the set based on their prediction of the remaining repetitions left to task-failure. While this approach holds promise, an important step in its development is to determine how accurate participants are in their predictions. That is, what is the difference between the predicted and actual number of repetitions remaining to task-failure, which ideally should be as small as possible. Objective: Examine the accuracy in predicting repetitions to task-failure in resistance exercises. Design: Scoping review and exploratory meta-analysis. Search and Inclusion: A systematic literature search was conducted with PubMed, SPORTDiscus, and Google Scholar in January 2021. Inclusion criteria included studies with healthy participants who predicted the number of repetitions they can complete to task-failure in various resistance exercises, before or during an ongoing set, which was performed to taskfailure. Sixteen publications were eligible for inclusion, of which 13 publications that cover 12 studies were included in our meta-analysis with a total of 414 participants. Results: The main multilevel meta-analysis model including all effects sizes (262 across 12 clusters) revealed that participants tended to under predict the number of repetitions to task-failure by 0.95 repetitions (95% CIs= 0.17 to 1.73), but with considerable heterogeneity (Q(261)= 3060, p< 0.0001; I 2 = 97.9%). Meta-regressions showed that prediction accuracy slightly improved when the predictions were made closer to set failure (β= -0.025 [95% CIs= -0.05 to

Objectives: To determine how the onset of COVID-19, and the associated ‘lockdown’, affected RT behaviours, in addition to motivation, perceived effectiveness, enjoyment, and intent to continue, in those who regularly performed resistance training RT prior to the pandemic. Design: Observational, cross-sectional. Setting: Online surveys in multiple languages (English, Danish, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, Slovakian, Swedish, and Japanese) distributed across social media platforms and through authors professional and personal networks. Participants: Adults (n = 5389 after data cleaning; median age = 31 years [IQR = 25, 38]), who were previously engaged in RT prior to lockdown (median prior RT experience = 7 years [IQR = 4, 12]). Main outcomes: Self-reported RT behaviours including: continuation of RT during lockdown, location of RT, purchase of specific equipment for RT, method of training (e.g. alone, supervision etc.), full-body or split routine, types of training, repetition ranges, exercise number, set volumes (per exercise and muscle group), weekly frequency of training, perception of effort, whether training was planned/recorded, time of day, and training goals. Secondary outcomes included motivation, perceived effectiveness, enjoyment, and intent to continue RT. Results: A majority of individuals (82.8%) maintained participation in some form of RT during- lockdown. Marginal probabilities from generalised linear models and generalised estimating equations of engaging in certain RT behaviours were largely similar from pre- to during- lockdown (particularly numbers of exercises, sets per exercise or muscle group, and weekly frequencies). There was reduced probability of training in privately owned gyms and increased probability of training at home; greater probability of training using a full-body routine; reduced probability of resistance machines use and increased probability of free weight and bodyweight training; reduced probability of moderate repetition ranges and greater probability of higher repetition ranges; and reduction in the perception of effort experienced during- training. Further, individuals were slightly less likely to plan or record training during- lockdown and many changed their training goals as a result of lockdown. Conclusions: Those engaged in RT prior to lockdown appeared mostly able to maintain these behaviours with only slight adaptations in both the location and types of training performed. However, people employed less effort, and motivation, perceived effectiveness, enjoyment, and likelihood of continuing current training all appeared lower during- lockdown. These results have implications for strategies to maintain engagement in positive health behaviours such as RT during- restrictive pandemic-related public health measures.

Introduction Understanding the impact of lockdown upon resistance training (RT), and how people adapted their RT behaviours, has implications for strategies to maintain engagement in similar positive health behaviours. Further, doing so will provide a baseline for investigation of the long-term effects of these public health measures upon behaviours and perceptions, and facilitate future follow-up study. Objectives To determine how the onset of coronavirus (COVID-19), and associated ‘lockdown’, affected RT behaviours, in addition to motivation, perceived effectiveness, enjoyment, and intent to continue, in those who regularly performed RT prior to the pandemic. Methods We conducted an observational, cross-sectional study using online surveys in multiple languages (English, Danish, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, Slovakian, Swedish, and Japanese) distributed across social media platforms and through authors’ professional and personal networks. Adults ( n = 5389; median age = 31 years [interquartile range (IQR) = 25, 38]), previously engaged in RT prior to lockdown (median prior RT experience = 7 years [IQR = 4, 12]) participated. Outcomes were self-reported RT behaviours including: continuation of RT during lockdown, location of RT, purchase of specific equipment for RT, method of training, full-body or split routine, types of training, repetition ranges, exercise number, set volumes (per exercise and muscle group), weekly frequency of training, perception of effort, whether training was planned/recorded, time of day, and training goals. Secondary outcomes included motivation, perceived effectiveness, enjoyment, and intent to continue RT. Results A majority of individuals (82.8%) maintained participation in RT during-lockdown. Marginal probabilities from generalised linear models and generalised estimating equations for RT behaviours were largely similar from pre- to during-lockdown. There was reduced probability of training in privately owned gyms (~ 59% to ~ 7%) and increased probability of training at home (~ 18% to ~ 89%); greater probability of training using a full-body routine (~ 38% to ~ 51%); reduced probability of resistance machines (~ 66% to ~ 13%) and free weight use (~ 96% to ~ 81%), and increased probability of bodyweight training (~ 62% to ~ 82%); reduced probability of moderate repetition ranges (~ 62–82% to ~ 55–66%) and greater probability of higher repetition ranges (~ 27% to ~ 49%); and moderate reduction in the perception of effort experienced during-training ( r = 0.31). Further, individuals were slightly less likely to plan or record training during lockdown and many changed their training goals. Additionally, perceived effectiveness, enjoyment, and likelihood of continuing current training were all lower during-lockdown. Conclusions Those engaged in RT prior to lockdown these behaviours with only slig...

Objectives:The accepted wisdom within resistance training is that differing loads and corresponding repetition maximum (RM) ranges are optimal for inducing specific adaptations. For example, prominent organizations and their respective publications have typically prescribed heavy loads for maximal strength increases ( ≥ 85% 1RM/ ≤ 6RM), more moderate loads for hypertrophy (67-85% 1RM/6-12RM) and lighter loads for local muscular endurance (LME; ≤ 67% 1RM/ ≥ 12RM). Since we believe these recommendations originate from a misunderstanding and misinterpretation of DeLorme's strength-endurance continuum, the aim of this narrative review is to discuss the preponderance of research surrounding training load and strength and LME adaptations. Design & Methods: Narrative ReviewResults: The current body of literature fails to support recommendations for the use of specific loads for specific strength, hypertrophy or LME adaptations. Furthermore, that the strength-endurance continuum originally presented by DeLorme was never intended to compare the use of heavier-and lighter-load resistance training, but rather to consider the adaptations to strength training and aerobically based endurance exercise. Finally, a lack of clarity considering absolute-and relative-LME has confounded understanding of this adaptation. Conclusions:The body of research supports that absolute LME appears to adapt as a result of maximal strength increases.However, relative LME shows minimal response to strength training with either heavier-or lighter-loads. We present the limitations of the current body of research and promote specifically detailed recent research as well as the importance of generality of strength and LME in both sporting and real-world settings.(Journal of Trainology 2020;9:1-8)

Androulakis-Korakakis, P, Langdown, L, Lewis, A, Fisher, JP, Gentil, P, Paoli, A, and Steele, J. Effects of exercise modality during additional "high-intensity interval training" on aerobic fitness and strength in powerlifting and strongman athletes. J Strength Cond Res 32(2): 450-457, 2018-Powerlifters and strongman athletes have a necessity for optimal levels of muscular strength while maintaining sufficient aerobic capacity to perform and recover between events. High-intensity interval training (HIIT) has been popularized for its efficacy in improving both aerobic fitness and strength but never assessed within the aforementioned population group. This study looked to compare the effect of exercise modality, e.g., a traditional aerobic mode (AM) and strength mode (SM), during HIIT on aerobic fitness and strength. Sixteen well resistance-trained male participants, currently competing in powerlifting and strongman events, completed 8 weeks of approximately effort- and volume-matched HIIT in 2 groups: AM (cycling, n = 8) and SM (resistance training, n = 8). Aerobic fitness was measured as predicted V[Combining Dot Above]O2max using the YMCA 3 minutes step test and strength as predicted 1 repetition maximum from a 4-6RM test using a leg extension. Both groups showed significant improvements in both strength and aerobic fitness. There was a significant between-group difference for aerobic fitness improvements favoring the AM group (p ≤ 0.05). There was no between-group difference for change in strength. Magnitude of change using within-group effect size for aerobic fitness and strength was considered large for each group (aerobic fitness, AM = 2.6, SM = 2.0; strength, AM = 1.9, SM = 1.9). In conclusion, our results support enhanced strength and aerobic fitness irrespective of exercise modality (e.g., traditional aerobic and resistance training). However, powerlifters and strongman athletes wishing to enhance their aerobic fitness should consider HIIT using an aerobic HIIT mode.

Prolonged periods in microgravity (μG) environments result in deconditioning of numerous physiological systems, particularly muscle at molecular, single fiber, and whole muscle levels. This deconditioning leads to loss of strength and cardiorespiratory fitness. Loading muscle produces mechanical tension with resultant mechanotransduction initiating molecular signaling that stimulates adaptations in muscle. Exercise can reverse deconditioning resultant from phases of detraining, de-loading, or immobilization. On Earth, applications of loading using exercise models are common, as well as in μG settings as countermeasures to deconditioning. The primary modalities include, but are not limited to, aerobic training (or “cardio”) and resistance training, and have historically been dichotomized; the former primarily thought to improve cardiorespiratory fitness, and the latter primarily improving strength and muscle size. However, recent work questions this dichotomy, suggesting adaptations to loading through exercise are affected by intensity of effort independent of modality. Furthermore, similar adaptations may occur where sufficient intensity of effort is used. Traditional countermeasures for μG-induced deconditioning have focused upon engineering-based solutions to enable application of traditional models of exercise. Yet, contemporary developments in understanding of the applications, and subsequent adaptations, to exercise induced muscular loading in terrestrial settings have advanced such in recent years that it may be appropriate to revisit the evidence to inform how exercise can used in μG. With the planned decommissioning of the International Space Station as early as 2024 and future goals of manned moon and Mars missions, efficiency of resources must be prioritized. Engineering-based solutions to apply exercise modalities inevitably present issues relating to devices mass, size, energy use, heat production, and ultimately cost. It is necessary to identify exercise countermeasures to combat deconditioning while limiting these issues. As such, this brief narrative review considers recent developments in our understanding of skeletal muscle adaptation to loading through exercise from studies conducted in terrestrial settings, and their applications in μG environments. We consider the role of intensity of effort, comparisons of exercise modalities, the need for concurrent exercise approaches, and other issues often not considered in terrestrial exercise studies but are of concern in μG environments (i.e., O2 consumption, CO2 production, and energy costs of exercise).