The idea of closed-loop interaction in in vitro and in vivo electrophysiology has been successfully implemented in the dynamic clamp concept strongly impacting the research of membrane and synaptic properties of neurons. In this paper we show that this concept can be easily generalized to build other kinds of closed-loop protocols beyond (or in addition to) electrical stimulation and recording in neurophysiology and behavioral studies for neuroethology. In particular, we illustrate three different examples of goal-driven real-time closed-loop interactions with drug microinjectors, mechanical devices and video event driven stimulation. Modern activity-dependent stimulation protocols can be used to reveal dynamics (otherwise hidden under traditional stimulation techniques), achieve control of natural and pathological states, induce learning, bridge between disparate levels of analysis and for a further automation of experiments. We argue that closed-loop interaction calls for novel real time analysis, prediction and control tools and a new perspective for designing stimulus-response experiments, which can have a large impact in neuroscience research.
Real-time (RT) software technology has an enormous potential to precisely control the spatio-temporal aspects of a stimulus and to build activity-dependent stimulusresponse loops to interact with neural systems and control them in a millisecond time scale. Establishing these loops can be an essential step towards understanding the dynamics of many neural processes and can bridge between traditionally disparate levels of analysis. RT software technology has been previously exploited to build dynamic clamp protocols in electrophysiological preparations [1]. The same principles used in the dynamic-clamp technology can be generalized to develop new techniques of activity-dependent stimulation with applications in a broad spectrum of research in nervous systems [2]. Here we show how RT software technology can also be used to build protocols of activity-dependent real-time drug microinjection to stimulate neural systems.The heart central pattern generator (CPG) from the cardiac ganglion of the crab Carcinus maenas was subjected to microinjections of GABA. The microinjections were delivered with a Picospritzer III, and the duration of the injection and the stimulation precise instant were controlled. Simultaneously, the membrane potential of one neuron was measured and an activity-dependent stimuli protocol of GABA microinjection was implemented with RT software technology. Figure 1 shows the effect of activity-dependent GABA microinjection stimuli evoked by the real-time detection of three action potentials in a CPG neuron from the cardiac ganglion of Carcinus maenas. The top panel shows the control activity (irregular bursts with six or more spikes). The middle panel shows the beginning of a RT stimulation protocol that consists of GABA injection when more than two spikes are detected (the vertical arrows indicate the instant in which the microinjection takes place). The bottom panel shows the activity a few seconds after the beginning of the protocol.
The hunting for big game has been developed notably in the recent decades in Andalusia (Spain), according to a diversity of management regimes. This social extension reflects the social entrenchment of this activity, what it is explained before by socio-cultural, historic and heritage values than by its economic importance, such as it is described during the first part of this paper. Among these values, we have wanted to stress the cognitive pattern that mediates the relations between hunters who exert the so-called "social" hunting for big game, addressing the sensorial and ethical aspects of this web of relations enacted by them. In the second part, the conflict on the "regimes of Nature" (considered as 'ontologies') claimed by environmentalist and hunting organizations is focused. Finally, we suggest the suitability of promoting a governance debate on hunting taking into account the diversity of perceptions of nature-society relationships.
Political Women and RuRal develoPment in andalusiaPablo Palenzuela Chamorro ppalenzuela@us.es
Universidad de Sevilla. EspañaCristina CruCes roldán ccruces@us.es Universidad de Sevilla. España resumen el artículo analiza la situación que viven las mujeres políticas en los pequeños pueblos de andalucía, al sur de españa, en el marco de las políticas de desarrollo Rural. mediante una metodología estadística y fundamentalmente cualitativa, se presentan las estrategias femeninas para alcanzar el empoderamiento (acceso, motivaciones, "estilos femeninos", posiciones, trabajo, socialización de los cargos...) en una arena tradicionalmente masculinizada como la política local, y su compatibilidad con la vida familiar y social.
Palabras Clavedesarrollo rural, empoderamiento, estrategias, Género, Política local. abstraCt the article analyses political and familial women strategies in small towns of andalusia, and the rol of Rural development Policies in southern spain. through a mainly qualitative and statistical methodology, the authors presents women's ways of enpowerment in local policy (motivations, access, allocation of positions, work, feminine styles, political socialization...), and its compatibility with family and social life.
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