This paper uses recent developments in crowd psychology as the basis for developing new guidelines for public order policing. Argues that the classical view of all crowd members as being inherently irrational and suggestible, and therefore potentially violent, is both wrong and potentially dangerous. It can lead to policing strategies that respond to the violence of some in the crowd by clamping down on all members, and therefore lead all members to perceive the police as hostile and illegitimate. In such conditions, even those who were initially opposed to violence may come to side with more conflictual crowd members and hence contribute to an escalation in the level and scope of collective conflict. This paper argues that police officers need to concentrate on understanding the collective identities, priorities and intentions of different groups in the crowd and give the same priority to facilitating the lawful intentions of some groups as to controlling the unlawful intentions of others.

This paper presents an analysis of collective behaviour among England football fans attending the European football championships in Portugal (Euro2004). Given this category's violent reputation, a key goal was to explore the processes underlying their apparent shift away from conflict in match cities. Drawing from the elaborated social identity model of crowd behaviour (ESIM) data were obtained using semi-structured observations and interviews before, during and after the tournament. Qualitative analysis centres first on three key incidents in match cities where the potential for violence was undermined either by 'self-policing' among England fans, or by appropriately targeted police intervention. These are contrasted with two 'riots' involving England fans that occurred in Algarve during the tournament. A phenomenological analysis of England fans' accounts suggests that the contexts created by different forms of policing helped bring to the fore different understandings of what constituted proper and possible behaviour among England fans, and that these changes in identity content underpinned shifts toward and away from collective conflict. The implications of this analysis for the ESIM, understanding public order policing, social change and social conflict are discussed.

Articles You do not currently have access to this article. Download all figures Much p ublic order p olicing is still based on the assump tion that crowds are inherently irrational and dangerous. We argue that this ap p roach is both

This paper contributes to the science of crowd dynamics and psychology by examining the social psychological processes related to the relative absence of "hooliganism" at the Finals of the 2004 Union Europe ´enne de Football Association (UEFA) Football (Soccer) Championships in Portugal. Quantitative data from a structured observational study is integrated with data from a questionnaire survey of a group associated ubiquitously with 'hooliganism' -namely England fans. This analysis provides support for the contention that the absence of 'disorder' can be attributed in large part to the non-paramilitary policing style adopted in cities hosting tournament matches. Evidence is presented which suggests that this style of policing supported forms of non-violent collective psychology that, in turn, served to psychologically marginalise violent groups from the wider community of fans. The study highlights the mutually constructive relationships that can be created between psychological theory, research, policing policy and practice, particularly in relation to the successful management of 'public order'. The paper concludes by exploring some of the wider implications of this research for theory, policy, the management of crowds, social conflict, and human rights more generally.

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Youngsters in the Arnhem Zoo chimpanzee colony frequently "bother" adult group-members. They throw sticks and sand at them, hit them from behind, etc. , and dash away immediately. This occurs without apparent instigation and in spite of the fact that they may be punished. Earlier data led to the hypothesis that this so-called quasi-aggressive behaviour (which also occurs in wild chimpanzees and in other species) is a form of social exploration caused by exploratory impulses which functions as a mechanism for youngsters to learn and expand social limits. To test this hypothesis new data were obtained on the same individuals. The results provide firm evidence that quasi-aggressive behaviour is indeed social exploration. Two different functional forms could be distinguished. 1. Uncertainty reduction. This form of social exploration is performed by male and female youngsters alike, especially towards adult females. The behaviour is more likely, the higher the level of response variability that the youngsters experience in their relationship with these females. This is indicated by the fact that there are strong positive correlations between response variability (as measured by the information-theoretical measure of uncertainty H) and frequency of quasi-aggressive behaviour performed. Female reactions tended to be highly variable and included many aggressive and fearful responses. The course and patterning of quasi-aggressive behaviour was strongly influenced not only by the variability in response types but also by the quality of the reaction. Quasi-aggressive behaviour continued more often after aggressive and fearful responses. Aggressive responses in particular resulted in longer bouts of quasi-aggressive behaviour, whereas fearful responses (which were stimulating initially) resulted in shorter bouts. After the behaviour had terminated it was repeated more quickly if the response of the target animal had been aggressive. Consistent ignoring reactions on the part of the target animals resulted in fewer and shorter bouts, which were repeated less quickly. It is argued that the results indicate that this type of quasi-aggressive behaviour is aimed at reducing uncertainty in the first place, whereas a secondary goal of the youngsters is to be able to "control" the (responses of) target animals. 2. Investigating authority. Quasi-aggressive behaviour performed towards adult males, especially by male youngsters, differs considerably from the "reducing uncertainty" type directed towards adult females. Instigating factors are: high adult male dominance rank and display of power by these high ranking males (viz. when they are 'bluffing'). The behaviour of the youngsters performing this type of quasi-aggressive behaviour is highly ambivalent: they show a clear intention to withdraw, their behaviour is often accompanied by 'submissive greeting', they show signs of fear relatively quickly, in spite of the fact that the males seldom react aggressively. The reaction of the males varies very little: on the whole (over 70% of the times) they ignored the youngsters. In the main, bouts against males lasted for a shorter time and were repeated less quickly (in spite of the fact that the males did not receive less quasi-aggressive behaviour than did the females). On the whole quasi-aggressive behaviour directed towards males was less associated with the responses of the targets than that directed toward females. The "investigating authority" type of quasi-aggressive behaviour is related less to uncertainty and more to male dominance rank. It functions as a means for youngsters to learn about power relationships and about the constituents of "dominant behaviour". Both forms of social exploration test certain characteristics of the social environment of youngsters, viz. the nature of relationships of which the youngsters themselves form a part. It is argued that this effect is not achieved by any other behaviour. It is just as adaptive for youngsters to explore their social environment as it is for them to explore their physical environment: through exploration youngsters gain vital knowledge for a proper functioning in their surroundings.

Purpose -This paper examines potential correlates of the effectiveness of oleoresin capsicum (OC) or pepper spray and police officer satisfaction with its performance during use-of-force encounters. Design/methodology/approach -Based on surveys completed by police officers, superior officers, and substitute prosecutors, data on nearly 800 uses of OC by Dutch police forces occurring between June 1, 2001 and December 31, 2002 were obtained. Ordered and generalized ordered logistic regressions are used for the analysis. Findings -The paper shows that although OC was generally effective, it was less effective on suspects under the influence of drugs, violent suspects, minority suspects, and suspects who were warned before being exposed to OC. Officers with more job experience reported OC as being more effective than officers with less experience. OC reduced aggressiveness among suspects already aggressive, but it induced aggression among initially non-aggressive subjects. The vast majority of officers were satisfied with OC's performance during the study period, although ratings were affected by its ability to ease arrests, incapacitate suspects, and reduce suspect aggressiveness.Research limitations/implications -The OC incidents on which the analysis is based are a subset of all actual uses, and thus may not be representative. Several of the regressors are based on officer perception, and may be subject to measurement error. Practical implications -The findings in this paper have implications for police policy, practice, and training, and officer and suspect safety. Originality/value -This is one of very few studies to use multiple-regression to examine correlates of OC effectiveness and officer satisfaction, and it expands upon the prior literature by including additional measures of OC performance. The results should be of value to law enforcement agencies and officers using OC, and those considering its adoption.

Long‐term data on the occurrence of “teasing” in young chimpanzees living in the Arnhem Zoo chimpanzee colony are presented. They strengthen the hypotheses—presented in earlier papers—concerning the existence of two functional forms of this so‐called quasi‐aggressive behaviour and provide insight into the way in which they develop. Developmental changes are visible both in the performance of quasi‐aggressive behaviour and in the effects evoked by the behaviour. The purpose of the reducing uncertainty type of quasi‐aggressive behaviour, performed by male and female youngsters towards adult females, is to obtain more predictable responses. As youngsters grow older, they engage in this behaviour also to gain control over the responses of the target animals. Eventually, the quasi‐aggressive behaviour of male youngsters develops into adult‐like bluff and attack behaviour the purpose of which is to establish dominance relationships. The investigating authority type of quasi‐aggressive behaviour, directed towards adult males, is associated increasingly with the exercise of power by the target males. The youngsters increasingly behave submissively towards the males and direct quasi‐aggressive behaviour especially towards the alpha‐male at moments when he is bluffing or involved in other conspicuous social interactions. These and other changes in the relationship between adult males and male youngsters are already visible well before the onset of puberty in the youngsters. It is discussed in how far the development of these exploratory aggression types involves social learning processes and how this fits in with current concepts concerning the development of aggressive behaviour.