Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were the first brominated persistent organic pollutants (POPs) listed in the Stockholm Convention. Parties to the convention are currently establishing inventories for developing action plans for the environmentally sound management of PBDE-containing materials. The major use of commercial octabromodiphenyl ether (c-OctaBDE) has been in casings from cathode ray tube (CRT) TVs and computer monitors. Large quantities of used e-waste and electronic equipment have been exported to developing countries with Nigeria being a major importer in Africa. The casings from 382 TVs and computers imported from major world regions to Nigeria were sampled in backyards and waste dumps. The samples were screened with X-ray flourescence (XRF) for bromine and analysed by gas chromatography/ electron capture detection (GC/ECD) for brominated flame retardants (BFRs). A high proportion of the CRT casings (61 %) contained more than 10,000 ppm bromine from BFRs. Decabromodiphenyl ether (DecaBDE) was the major flame retardant used in TV sets and tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) for computer CRTs.The screening suggests that average PBDE levels (of c-OctaBDE + DecaBDE) in Nigerian-stockpiled CRT casings were 1.1 % for TV and 0.13 % for PC CRTs. These are above the Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) limit and should be separated for RoHS compliant recycling. The Nigerian e-waste inventory of 237,000 t of CRT plastic would therefore contain approx. 594 t c-OctaBDE and 1,880 t of DecaBDE. In Nigeria, as for most developing countries, there is currently no adequate e-waste management, plastic separation or destruction capacity. The data highlight the urgent need to develop environmentally sound management for this large material flow.

This study investigated the material/substance flow of polybrominated diphenyl ethers listed in the Stockholm Convention (SC) as persistent organic pollutant (POP-PBDEs) in the most relevant plastic fractions in Nigeria. Considering the prohibition of production and the use of POP-PBDEs and knowing that these pollutants are still contained in electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) and associated wastes (WEEE), it is necessary to determine their flows, especially in developing countries with limited end-of-life management. Following the inventory approach of the SC Guidance and utilizing the existing national e-waste inventory together with monitoring data, a material/substance flow analysis was conducted using the STAN tool. Within the period of 2000 to 2010, the total import for EEE/WEEE in Category 3 and 4 was approximately 8 million tonnes (Mt) containing approximately 2.4 Mt of polymers. For the inventory year 2010, it was estimated that from these polymers, about 0.8 Mt was still in stock and 1.6 Mt has reached the end-of-life. It was also estimated that approximately 1.1 Mt has ended in dumpsites, 0.3 Mt was burned in the open, and 0.2 Mt was recycled. In the plastic fractions, 1,270 t of POP-PBDEs was contained with about 370 t still in use/stock and approximately 900 t has entered the end-of-life phase. All three major end-of-life treatments result in environmental pollution with associated exposure risk. The implementation of the Stockholm Convention represents an important opportunity to improve this management situation in Nigeria and other developing countries.

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Recently, certain polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have been listed as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the Stockholm Convention. In this study, a preliminary material and substance flow analysis of commercial pentabromodiphenyl ether (c-PentaBDE) was conducted for motor vehicles-a major use sector for POP-PBDE in polyurethane (PUR) foam-for Nigeria. The methodology of the Stockholm Convention PBDE inventory guidance was used for the calculation of c-PentaBDE. Material/substance flow analysis was conducted applying the STAN software. The time frame for this analysis was 1980-2010, considering that this was the period when POP-PBDE-containing vehicles were largely imported into Nigeria.It is estimated that the approximately 19 million passenger cars imported from 1980 to 2010 contained ca. 270 t of POP-PBDEs in ca. 401,000 t of PUR foam. A major share of cars from the USA and only a small share of cars from Europe and Asia were impacted. This simplified material and substance flow of PUR foams and POP-PBDEs in motor vehicles demonstrated the potential for environmental/human contamination and pollution of recycling/reuse for Nigeria and other developing countries.The study developed the first preliminary inventory of end-of-life vehicles for Nigeria, following which the environment ministry has taken up the important issue of end-of-life vehicles management. Considering that a range of other pollutants are contained in vehicles (e.g. heavy metals, flame retardants, PCBs, chlorofluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons and waste oil), this initiated activity should finally lead to an integrated management of pollutants and resources from the transport sector.

Plastics from cathode ray tube (CRT) casings were sampled in Nigeria and analysed for their polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxin and dibenzofuran (PBDD/F) content. PBDD/Fs, consisting mainly of PBDFs, were detected in BFR containing plastic with a median (mean) concentration of 18,000 ng/g (41,000 ng/g). The PBDD/Fs levels were highest in samples containing PBDEs, but the levels of PBDFs were two orders of magnitude higher than the levels reported in the technical PBDE mixtures and where frequently exceeding 1000 μg/g of PBDE content. These higher levels are likely to arise from additional transformation of PBDEs during production, use, recycling, or storage, but the processes responsible were not identified in this study. PBDD/Fs in CRT casings containing1,2-bistribromophenoxyethane (TBPE) were dominated by tetrabrominated dibenzo-p-dioxin (TBDDs) with concentrations around 10 μg/g of the TBPE content. The PBDD/Fs in CRT casings containing tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) were found at concentrations around 0.1 μg/g of TBBPA levels. Casings treated with TBPE or TBBPA often contained PBDEs (and PBDF) as impurities-probably originating from recycled e-waste plastics. It was estimated that the 237,000 t of CRT casings stockpiled in Nigeria contain between 2 and 8 t of PBDD/Fs. The total PBDD/F contamination in polymers arising from total historic PBDE production/use is estimated in the order of 1000 t. TEQ values of CRT samples frequently exceeded the Basel Convention's provisional low POPs content of 15 ng TEQ/g. Due to the significant risks to health associated with PBDD/Fs, more detailed studies on the exposure routes from PBDD/Fs in stockpiles are needed.

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