This paper discusses use of the effective axial force concept in offshore pipeline design in general and in DNV codes in particular. The concept of effective axial force or effective tension has been known and used in the pipeline and riser industry for some decades. However, recently a discussion about this was initiated and doubt on how to treat the internal pressure raised. Hopefully this paper will contribute to explain the use of this concept and remove the doubts in the industry, if it exists at all. The concept of effective axial force allows calculation of the global behaviour without considering the effects of internal and/or external pressure in detail. In particular, global buckling, so-called Euler buckling, can be calculated as in air by applying the concept of effective axial force. The effective axial force is also used in the DNV-RP-F105 “Free spanning pipelines” to adjust the natural frequencies of free spans due to the change in geometrical stiffness caused by the axial force and pressure effects. A recent paper claimed, however, that the effect was the opposite of the one given in the DNV-RP-F105 and may cause confusion about what is the appropriate way of handling the pressure effects. It is generally accepted that global buckling of pipelines is governed by the effective axial force. However, in the DNV Pipeline Standard DNV-OS-F101, also the local buckling criterion is expressed by use of the effective axial force concept which easily could be misunderstood. Local buckling is, of course, governed by the local stresses, the true stresses, in the pipe steel wall. Thus, it seems unreasonable to include the effective axial force and not the true axial force as used in the former DNV Pipeline Standard DNV’96. The reason for this is explained in detail in this paper. This paper gives an introduction to the concept of effective axial force. Further it explains how this concept is applied in modern offshore pipeline design. Finally the background for using the effective axial force in some of the DNV pipeline codes is given.
One of the main risk factors for subsea pipelines exposed on the seabed is fatigue failure of free spans due to ocean current or wave loading. This paper describes how the structural response of a free span, as input to the fatigue analyses, can be assessed in a simple and still accurate way by using improved beam theory formulations. In connection with the release of the DNV Recommended Practice, DNV-RP-F105 “Free Spanning Pipelines”, the simplified structural response quantities have been improved compared to previous codes. The boundary condition coefficients for the beam theory formulations have been updated based an effective span length concept. This concept is partly based on theoretical studies and partly on a large number of FE analyses. The updated expressions are general and fit all types of soil and pipe dimensions for lower lateral and vertical vibration modes. The present paper focus on estimation of simplified response quantities such as lower natural frequencies and associated mode shapes. Hydrodynamical aspects of Vortex Induced Vibrations (VIV) are outside the scope of this paper.
The demand for energy is steadily increasing and, at least for the coming decades, the world has to rely on oil and gas to address this need. Most of the easiest accessible offshore petroleum reservoirs have been discovered and a great part developed over the last six decades. Thus, development of new oil and gas fields faces a lot of challenges as most of them are in remote areas, in deep waters and/or in areas with extreme environments like the Arctic region. One of the major trends in the offshore petroleum industry points towards deeper waters (e.g. outside West Africa, the Brazilian Pre-Salt developments and in the Gulf of Mexico). This trend also includes increased use of subsea installations instead of platforms, more subsea processing and increased use of pipelines to transport the hydrocarbons to shore or into a pipeline grid. This paper addresses some of the challenges pipeline design, installation and operation may face in deep and ultra-deep waters. The main design challenge is related to the high external pressure that may cause collapse of the pipeline. This potential failure mode is normally dealt with by increasing the pipe wall thickness, but at ultra-deep water depths this may require a very thick walled pipe that becomes very costly, difficult to manufacture and hard to install due to its weight. One approach to overcome this is to improve some of the parameters that determine the collapse resistance by an improved manufacturing process. Other approaches are to ensure a minimum internal pressure is maintained in the pipeline during all phases, or to install a buoyant pipeline that is anchored at a moderate water depth rather that laying on the sea bed.
Free span assessment has more and more become an important part of modern pipeline design. The reason for this is partly that the remaining hydrocarbon reservoirs are located in more challenging places, e.g. with very uneven seabed. Another explanation is that the pipeline design codes a few decades ago did not allow for vibrating free spans, while the modern, state-of-the-art pipeline codes, such as DNV-OS-F101 “Submarine Pipeline Systems” (2007) [1] and its Recommended Practices, opens for long spans that are allowed to vibrate as long as the structural integrity is ensured. By opening for longer free spans significant seabed intervention costs associated with trenching, rock dumping and supporting spans by other means are saved. One of the governing parameters to ensure the structural integrity of free spans is the natural frequency of the span. This is a parameter that the designer can to some degree control by means of moderate seabed intervention, e.g. span support. Since the natural frequency of the span together with the water flow velocity normal to the span determine the vibrations and the cyclic loading it is of vital importance to be able to estimate a realistic value of this frequency. The natural frequency is influenced by several effects. One of them is the effect of the internal pressure. This may represent a challenge since the effect of the pressure is the opposite of what one instantaneously thinks is correct. Quite recently some discussion about the effect of internal pressure on free spans were raised and some experimental data presented that claimed to prove that the way the internal pressure was handled in the DNV-RP-F105 “Free Spanning Pipelines” (2006) [2] is wrong. The intention of this paper is to show how the internal pressure influences on the structural response of free spans, and that the DNV codes and standard non-linear FE software, e.g. Abaqus, handle this effect in an adequate manner.
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